


! 



m 



II 



13$ 



888 



■ 



i 



m 



; 1 



1 



ill 



b 

lilt 
Wat 



m 



mm 



III 



*■ 









v ' ., 




C > 






% 4 













w 



^ ^ 







> 









<p 



%. ^ 



x ^ 






',, C' V * ' ■> .9* C- 

> 



A* 




THE SCIENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



° / 7 It *> J 

THE 



Normal G-eammae: 

ANALYTIC AND SYNTHETIC. 

Illustrated by Diagrams. 
By Stephen "W. Claek, A. M., 

AUTHOR OF >l FIRST LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR," "ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE," 

"GRAMMATIC CHART OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE," " KEY TO ENGLISH 

GRAMMAR AND MODEL EXERCISES." 



"The character of its Language determines the mental vigor of a nation." 

LONGINTJS. 




y 

A. S. BARNES & COMPANY, 

NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 

1870. 



TE i-tM 

4 C43 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR AS A SCIENCE. 
ENGLISH GEAMMAR AS AN ART. 



CLARK'S 

ENGLISH GrEAMMAES A^D ANALYSIS. 



Clark's First Lessons in English Grammar. Designed 
for Beginners, and Introductory to the Practical Grammar. 
By S. W. Clark, A. M., Principal of Cortland Academy. 
ISmo, half bound. 

Clark's New English Grammar. A Practical Grammar, 
in which Words, Phrases, and Sentences are Classified according 
to their Offices ; and their various Relations to each other illus- 
trated by a Complete System of Diagrams. 12mo, cloth. 

A Key to Clark 9 s Grammar, containing Diagrams of all 
the Sentences for Analysis and Parsing found in the Grammar. 

Clark's Normal Grammar— Analytic and Synthetic. Illus- 
trated by Diagrams. 

Clark's Analysis of the English Language — with a 
Complete Classification of Sentences and Phrases, according to 
their Grammatic Structure. Designed as a Sequel to the Eng- 
lish Grammar. 12mo, half bound. 

Clark's Grammatie Chart. Exhibiting the Analysis of 
Sentences, the Analysis of Phrases, the Classification and Medi- 
cation of Words. Mounted. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, 

By S. W. CLARK, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at "Washington. 



PREFACE. 



" The character of its Language determines the mental vigor 
of a nation." Not less true is it that the purity of his language 
determines the social standing of the man. If " speech is the body 
of thought," the conquest of correct speech is second in importance 
only to that of accuracy of thought. If Language is the " bridge 
that spans the chasm between the intellectual world and the phys- 
ical" — by which thoughts and emotions become audible and visible — 
by which sounds and sights create thought and feeling, then the 
study of Language ought to claim the earliest attention of the child. 
And indeed it does. The child learns language before he learns 
anything else. In the use of his mother tongue, he learns the art 
before he can study the science, and that child is fortunate whose 
early life is spent in the society of those who speak his vernacular 
in its purity. Accuracy and elegance in speech lind their natural 
counterparts in accuracy and elegance of thought, and in purity of 
emotion. 

While Grammar is an imitative Art, it is also a mental Science. 
For the acquisition of the science a Text-Book is demanded. A 
good text-book should so present the Science as to secure the Art — 
should so exhibit the Laws of Language as to furnish the pupil a 
sure test of the correctness of his expression — should so develop the 
varied structure of sentences and of phrases, as to enable the scholar 
to make such selection of them as will most clearly, forcibly, and 
elegantly express his thoughts and emotions — as to enable him to 
command the language. Its method should be so clear, concise, 
and natural as to make the study of Grammar attractive. Only 
such system and method can long command position in our 
schools. 

Twenty-five years have passed since the Author wrote his first 
work on English Grammar. During all those years, he has person- 



4 PEE FACE. 

ally tested his system and method in the school-room. His "First 
Lessons in English Grammar," his " Practical Grammar," 
and his "Analyses of the English Language," have found 
their way into extensive use in every State in the Union. Their 
gratifying success with the public has prompted the Author to 
this new effort. 

The many and varied criticisms of these books by intelligent, 
independent Teachers who have used them, the Author's extended, 
careful study of the science, his full recognition of the errors and 
defects of his previous works, justify the preparation of the Normal 
Grammar, which — based on the same system and methods of his 
former works — claims to be an improvement on them all. 

The System of Diagrams given in the Author's former works, has 
been retained, to which important additions and improvements 
have been made. 

The Author's views as to the importance of Diagrams, are 
corroborated by the decided approval of nearly all Teachers 
who have used them. Their concurrent testimony settles the 
question of their utility. 

The following extracts from responses of different Teachers, are 
given as specimens of many : 

" Your Diagrams have aroused an enthusiasm in our juvenile 
Grammar classes that has never been seen before." 

" They map out a sentence admirably." 

" They add much to the excitement of a lively recitation." 

" Object Lessons in Grammar are beautifully exhibited in the 
use of Diagrams." 

" Our little Architects delight in constructing sentences accord- 
ing to given models. Blank Diagrams drawn on the black board, 
are copied and filled with appropriate original sentences — thus 
securing good English compositions in sentences made to order." 

"Diagrams open the eyes of our pupils to new facts in the 
structure of sentences which many students would not otherwise 
discover." 

Those portions of the Author's former works that have stood 
the test of intelligent criticism, and have been generally approved, 
have been retained in this work. Such new matter and illustra- 
tions have been added as the advanced condition of the science 
seemed to demand. 

Rochester, N. Y., July, 1870. 



CONTENTS., 



PART I. 



Language — Spoken, Written . 

Grammar — General, Particular .... 

Elements of Language — Letters, Words, Phrases, 
tences ..... 

Letters — Forms, Classes, Uses . 

Words — Classes .... 

Phrases — Elements of Phrases, Classes 

Sentences — Elements of Sentences 

The Subject, the Predicate, 
Adjunct Elements 
Exercises in Analysis 
Diagrams, Rules 
Classification of Sentences 
Intransitive and Transitive 
Simple, Compound, Mixed 
Principal and Auxiliary 
Substantive, Adjective, Adverbial 



the Object 



Sen- 



PAGB 

9 

IO 
IO 

II 

17 

20 

28 
30 

33 
36 
39 
4i 
42 

43 
45 
47 



PART II. 
etymology of words. 

Words— Classes 68 

Their Structure — Radical, Simple . . 68 

Derivation— Prefix, Suffix . 69 

" Compound — Basts, Adjunct 69 

Their Uses — Nouns — Common, Proper . . 74 

NOUNS — Modifications — Gender j6 

" Person, Number . . . . 79 

Case — Subjective, Objective . 86 

" Possessive, Independent . 87 



CONTENTS. 



Pronouns— Classes 

Personal — Declension . 
Relative 

Interrogative 

Adjective 

Adjectives— Classes 

Qualifying 

Specifying— Pure, Numeral, Possessive 
Verbal — Transitive, Intransitive . 
Modifications . 

Verbs— Classes 

" Finite and Infinite . 
" Transitive and Intransitive 
" Principal and Auxiliary . 
" Regular and Irregular 
Modifications — Voice 

" Mode . 

Participles . 
Tense 
Conjugation— Regular 
Irregular 
Adverbs— Classes .... 

Modifications 
Prepositions — List 
Conjunctions— List . 
Exclamations 
Words of Euphony . 



PAGE 
9 2 

• 93 
94 

• 97 
98 

102 
103 
104 
105 
106 
in 
112 
113 
113 
114 
116 
117 
121 
126 

131 
150 
158 
161 
165 
170 
173 
174 



PART III. 

SYNTAX. 

General Principles and Facts 
Sentences— Grammatical Distinctions 
Rhetorical Distinctions 
Syntax of the Subject . 
Syntax of the Predicate 
Syntax of the Object 
Syntax of Pronouns . 
Independent Case . 



186 
186 
188 
194 
206 

233 
247 
263 



CONTENTS. 
Sentences 





PAGE 


-Adjuncts — Logical, Grammatical . 


268 


Syntax of Adjectives .... 


. 270 


Syntax of Adverbs . 


287 


Syntax of Participles .... 


. 294 


Syntax of the Infinitive .... 


300 


Syntax of Prepositions 


• 303 


Syntax of Conjunctions . 


308 


Exclamations and Words of Euphony 


. 312 


PART IV. 




PROSODY. 





Pauses — Rhetorical, Grammatical . . . . 314 

The Comma — Rules . . . . 315 

The Semicolon — Rules . . . . 317 

The Colon — Rules 317 

The Period— Rules 318 

Signs — Grammatical and Rhetorical . . . .319 

Apostrophe 319 

Quotation — Hyphen — Bracket — Parenthesis 

— Reference — Brace .... 320 

Caret — Dieresis — Index — Accent — Emphasis 321 

Composition — Prose and Verse 322 

Poetry — Lyric 322 

Dramatic — Epic — Didactic .... 323 

Pastoral — Elegiac — Epigram — Sonnet . . 324 

Versification — Blank, Rhyme 324 

Verse — 325 

Trochaic — Iambic — Pyrrhic — Spondaic — Dactyl 

— Anapest — Amphibrach — Tribrach . .326 

Figures — Grammatical — Rhetorical — Aphaeresis — Pros- 
thesis — Apocope 329 

Paragoge — Synaeresis — Diaeresis — Syncope — 

Tmesis — Ellipsis . 330 



8 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Figures — Pleonasm— Syllipsis— Enallage — Hyperbaton— 

Simile — Metaphor — Allegory . . 331 

Personification — Irony — Hyperbole— Antithesis 

— Metonomy — Synechdoche . . . 332 

Apostrophe — Interrogation — Exclamation — 
Vision — Paralepsis — Climax— Anti-Climax 
— Alliteration . 2>2>3 



CLARK'S QRm 



-225 *. 



r> «.* 






HIS /a/ 

"tip IP f^ i 















MEBa 



fo/o 



,0/ <£> 



«9 



j3* 






v 






participial! § 



V3^^ 






"a 




PUBLISHED BY A. 3 



TIC CHART. 



'*RULEI2:*x 




siES & CO -NEW YORK. 



PART I. 

THE ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE. 



Definition 1. — Language is any means of commu- 
nicating thought, feeling, or purpose. 

Obs. 1. — Thoughts and feelings are indicated — 

1. By certain expressions of the features, by gestures, and by 

other physical acts. This is called Natural Language. 

2. By articulate sounds, or by written characters. This is 

called Artificial Language. 

Obs. 2. — Natural language is common to all intelligent beings, 
and is understood by all without previous instruction. — Smiling, 
frowning, laughing, weeping, are instances of natural language. 

Obs. 3. — Artificial language is invented by men. — Sounds are 
made to indicate thoughts by mutual or common consent. Gen- 
erally, each nation has its peculiar language. 

Principle. — Artificial Language is 

Spoken and Written. 

Def. 2. — Spoken Language consists in vocal sounds, 
indicative of thought, of feeling, or of purpose. 

Def. 3. — Written Language consists in artificial 
characters, so arranged and combined as, by common 
consent, to represent thought or emotion. 

1* 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAE—PART I. 

Kem. — It is customary to give to every science a name, by which 
it may be distinguished from other sciences ; accordingly, people 
have agreed to call the science which treats of Language 

GRAMMAR. 

Def. 4. — Grammar is the Science of Language, and 
the Art of using it. 

Obs. 1. — There are certain General Principles of Grammar which 
are common to all languages. — Hence the term General Grammar. 

Obs. 2. — But each particular language has some idioms and 
forms of construction peculiar to itself. — Hence the term Particu- 
lar Grammar. 

Rem. — Eveiy Particular Grammar should include all the princi- 
ples of General Grammar. 

Def. 5. — English Grammar is the Science of the 
English language, and the Art of using it. 

Eem. — The articulate sounds of language are indicated by Letters. 

Def. 6. — A Letter is a character used to indicate a 
sound, or to modify the sound of another letter. 

Examples.— J. in hat, hate, hall, hart. 

Eem. — Letters are combined to form words. 

Def. 7. — A Word is a Letter, or a combination of 
Letters, used as the sign of an idea. 

Examples.— God— mysterious— stood— slowly— Ah .'—by— and. 
Rem. — Words are combined to form Phrases and Sentences. 

Def. 8. — A Phrase* is a combination of words, not 
constituting an entire proposition, but performing a 
distinct office in the structure of a Sentence or of an- 
other Phrase. 

* The term Phrase is used in this work, not in its popular, but in its technical 
sense. The common use of the term is vague and indefinite— applying to any 
collection of words. In its technical sense, it means only such a combination 
of words as perform a distinct office in the structure of a Sentence or of another 
Phrase. 



LETTERS— FORMS— CLASSES. 11 

Examples. — At midnight, in his guarded tent, 

The Turk was dreaming of the hour 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 
Should tremble at his power. 

Def. 9. — A Sentence is an assemblage of words, so 
combined as to assert an entire proposition. 

Examples. — 1. Night approaches. 

2. Day is departing. 

3. William is sleeping. 

4. Socrates was a philosopher. 

5. Virtue secures happiness. 

6: John and George have arrived. 

7. God created the heaven and the earth. 

LETTERS. 

POEMS, CLASSES, USES. 

Rem.— Vocal Sounds are the elements of spoken words. 
Letters are the elements of written or printed words* 

Obs. — The English language employs forty-one Elementary 
Sounds. These sounds are represented by twenty-six Letters — 
A a, Bb,Cc,Dd,Ee, Ff, G g, Hh, Ii, Jj, K k, L I, Mm, JST n, 
Oo,Pp, Qq,Rr,Ss, T t, Uu, V% Ww y X x, Ty,Zz. 

Rem. — These Letters thus arranged are called the English Al- 
phabet. 

Letters differ \ ! n ^i r /~ ^ 

( in their offices. 

Rem. — Most of the Letters used in our language were derived 
from the Latin, and are called Roman Letters. We also use a va- 
riety called Italic, another called (JUlb QEnglis!), another called 
Script, and also many forms of ©PEtirni^nifa!) L©tt©rs a These 
various styles of Letters have each two forms — Capital Letters and 
Small, or Lower-case Letters. 

Obs. 1. — Roman letters are in most common use in the English 
language. 

* Orthoepy and Orthography are usually learned from the spelling-book. 
For the convenience of those classes that need to review these branches, a 
few pages of the Grammar are devoted to a concise discussion of the forms, the 
s, and the uses of letters. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR—PART L 

Italic Letters arc used in words of special importance, and some- 
times in Sentences. 

Rem. — In the Sacred Scriptures, words supplied by the transla- 
tors to complete the construction of Sentences according to the 
English idiom, are printed in Italics. 

©lb (Ertglist) Letters are used for variety or ornament — in 
title-pages, etc. 

Obs. 2. — The small, or " lower-case," Letters are used in forming 
most Words, and constitute the appropriate form of letters now 
used in printed works — with the following Exceptions, wiiich 
provide for the use of 

Capital Letters. 
A word should begin with a capital letter, — 

1. When it is the first word of a distinct proposition. 

2. When it is a Proper Name, or a word immediately 
derived from a Proper Name. 

Examples.— Boston— William— American— Vermonter. 

3. When it is a name or appellation of the Supreme 
Being. 

Examples.— God— Saviour— Holy Spirit— Lord— Omnipotent. 

4. When it is the first word of a line of poetry. 

Example.—" Twinkle, twinkle, little star, 
How I wonder what you are ! 
Up above the world so high, 
Like a diamond in the sky." 

5. When it is a principal word in a title of a book or 
office, and sometimes when it is a word of special impor- 
tance, or used technically. 

Examples.— 1. " Willard's History of the United States. 1 ' 

2. " Burke on the Sublime and Beautiful. 1 ' 

3. " The Subject of a Verb should not take the place of the Ob 

ject." 

6. When it commences a direct quotation. 

Examples.— 1. " The footman, in his usual phrase, 

Comes up with 'Madam, dinner stays.' " 
2. " Woe to him that saithunto the wood, * Awake.' " 



LETTERS. 13 

7. When it constitutes the Pronoun "I" or the Ex- 
clamation " 0." 

Example. — " O, I have loved in youth's fair vernal morn, 
To spread imagination's wildest wing." 

8. When it is a Common Noun fully personified. 

Examples.— 1. " Sure I Fame's trumpet hear. 1 '— Cowley. 
2. "Here Strife and Faction rule the day." 

9. The entire word is usually printed in capitals — 

1. When it is the title of a book or of a chapter. 

2. When it is a word of special importance. 

3. When it is a Proper Name subscribed to a 

document. 
E1P The teacher is advised to write Sentences on the Blackboard 
containing errors in the use of Capital Letters, and require the 
Pupils to correct them. 

Obs. 1. — Letters are of various sizes, and have their correspond- 
ing appropriate names. The varieties of type in most common use 
are the following : 

Great Primer, Brevier, 

-q. Minion, 

-^ 1Ca > Nonpareil, 

Small Pica, Agate, 



Long Primer, Pear1, 



\ Siibvocals, and 



Diamond, 

Bourgeois, bhiw. 

Obs. 2. — The Sounds of the English Lan- ~ ' 9 

A . .. . , , & < Subvoca 

guage are distinguished as — } . 

00 I Aspirates. 

Obs. 3. — Vocal Sounds are produced by the vibrations of air in 

the throat. 

Kem. — The English language has fifteen vocal sounds — of which 
A represents Jive ; as heard in die, at, air, art, all. 
E " two ; as in she, shed. 

I " two ; " bind, bit. 

O " three ; " told, not, who. 

U " three ; " true, trust, full. 

Obs. 4. — Subvocal Sounds — represented by the letters b, d, g, j, 
1, m, n, ng, r, th, v, w, z, zh, and y— are vocal sounds partly sup- 



14 ENGLISH GBAMMAB—PART L 

pressed or modified by the tongue, the palate, the teeth, or the lips.. 
They are, therefore, distinguished as Linguals, Palatals, Dentals, 
and Labials. 

Obs. 5. — Aspirates — represented by f, h, k, p, s, t, th, sh, ch, and 
wh — are only whispers, produced by forcing breath through the 
organs of speech without vocalizing it. 

Obs. 6. — The Letters of the Alphabet are dis- j Vowels and 
tinguished as — \ Consonants. 

Obs. 7. — The Vowels represent pure Yocal sounds. The Vow- 
els are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

Obs. 8. — The Consonants represent Subvocal sounds and Aspi- 
rates. 

The Consonants are b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, 
x, y, z. 

W and y sometimes represent Vocals, and are then Vowels. 

r> „ t .• • i, i ( Semivowels and 

Rem. — Consonants are distinguished as — i ivr f 

Obs. 9. — Semivowels (f, h, j, 1, m, n, r, s, v, x, z, and c and g 
soft) may represent sounds without the aid of a vowel. 

Mutes (b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard) can not be sounded 
without the aid of a Vowel. Mutes at the end of words or syl- 
lables stop the voice. — Cap, hat, back, bad, cab. 

Rem. — L, m, n, and r, are called Liquids, because the sounds 
represented by them, flow readily into similar or other sounds. 

Rem. — Letters differ in the variety of their representation. 

1. Generally a Letter represents a peculiar sound. But, 

2. Some Letters represent more than one sound. 
Examples.— A in fate, far, fall, fat.— in do, go, on. 

3. Sometimes different Letters represent the same sound. 
Examples.— A and e in slay, they ; s and c in case, face. 

4. Sometimes a Letter is used that does not represent any 

sound. 
Examples. — E in time ; n in hynm, kilft. 
Letters thus used are said to be Silent. 
Silent Letters are used — 

1. To modify the sounds of other Letters ; and 

2. To denote the origin or definition of the word. 



LETTERS. 15 

Obs. 10.— One Letter often represents the sound of another Letter. 

Examples.— E for a— they ; e for u— her; i for u— sir. 

Rem.— The Letter x always represents either the Letter z or the 
two letters k and s. 

Examples.— Xenophon ; tax = taks ; inflexible = infleksible. 

Obs. 11.— A Letter is said to be Long when its sound can be 
protracted at will, as a in say—-&y. 

Obs.— A Letter is said to be Short when the sound represented 
by it can not be protracted, as a in hat. 

Rem.— Some Letters combine — 

1. To form one sound. 

2. To form a combination of sounds. 

Obs.— Vowels unite with the same, or with other vowels, to form 
Diphthongs and Digraphs, Triphthongs and Trigraphs. 

Obs. — a Diphthong is a union of two vowels in one syllable, in 
which both vowels are sounded. 

Examples.— Oi in boil, ou in thou. 

BS _A Digraph is a union of two vowels in one syllable, in 
which only one of the vowels is sounded. 

Examples.— Ea in Eagle, ei in neither, oe in subpoena. 

Obs.— A Triphthong is a union of three vowels in one syllable, 
all of which are sounded. 
Examples.— TJoy in buoyancy. 

Obs. — A Trigraph is a union of three vowels in one syllable, 
not all of which are sounded. 

Examples. — Eau in beauty, ieu in adieu. 

I&p Let the Pupils now turn to page 38, and in some of the Sen- 
tences name — 

1. All the Vowels. 2. All the Semivowels. 
3. All the Mutes. 4. All the Liquids. 

5. All the Diphthongs and Digraphs. 

6. All the Triphthongs and Trigraphs. 

Obs. — Two or more consonants may unite to form a complex 
sound. 

Examples.— 5r— , bring ; cl-~ , cling ; ng— , ciing. 

Rem. — The same consonant repeated in the same syllable is 
called a Double Consonant ; as 11 in Ball, rr in Burr. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART I. 

Eem. — Consonants unite with Vowels to modify their sound or 
signification. 

Examples. — A — ay — hay— eight— they. 

Rem. — For convenience in articulation, most words are divided 
into Parts, called Syllables; hence, 

Obs. — A Syllable is a whole Word, or such part of a Word as 
is uttered by one impulse of the voice. 

Examples.— Man— man-ly— man-li-ness— un-man-ly. 

One Syllable that completes a word is called a Monosyllable. 

Examples.— Man— good— sing— form. 

Two Syllables united to form a word are called a Dissyllable. 

Examples. — Manly — goodness — singing — inform. 

Three Syllables that complete a word are called a Trisyllable. 

Examples.— Manliness — goodnesses — informing. 

Four or more Syllables that complete a word are called a Poly- 
syllable. 

Examples.— Unmanliness— information. 

Rem. — Every Syllable must have one vowel sound. It may have 
one or more consonants. 

Obs. — A Consonant placed before a Vowel in the same Syllable 
is called an Antecedent. A Consonant placed after a Vowel in 
the same Syllable is called a Consequent. 

Exercises in the Analysis of Words. 

Hat — is a Monosyllable. 

h — is a Consonant — Semivowel— A ntecedent to its vowel a. 

a — is a Vowel — short sound. 

t — is a Consonant— Mute— Consequent to its vowel a. 
Mary — is a Dissyllable— accent on the first. 

m — is a Consonant— Semivowel— Liquid— Antecedent to its vowel a. 

a — is a Vowel— long sound. 

r — is a Consonant — Semivowel — Liquid — Antecedent to its vowel y. 

y — is a Vowel — short sound. 
Beautiful — is a Trisyllable — accent on the first. 

b — is a Consonant — Mute — Liquid— Antecedent to its vowel u. 
eau — is a Trigraph— having the sound of u long. 

e — is a Vowel not sounded. 

a — is a Vowel not sounded. 

u — is a Vowel— long sound. 

t — is a Consonant — Mute — Antecedent to its vowel i. 

i — is a Vowel— long sound— not accented. 



WORDS. 



17 



f — is a Consonant— Semivowel— A ntecedent to its vowel u. 
u — is a Vowel— third or medial sound. 
1 — is a Consonant — Semivowel — Liquid — Consequent to its vowel u. 

By these models, let the following words be analyzed : 



Faith. 


Sincere. 


Gratitude. Benediction. 


Unanimity. 


Hope. 


Duty. 


Weariness. Constellation. 


Meditativeness 


Love. 


Candor. 


Thankfulness. Celebrating. 


Individual. 


Zeal. 


Fully. 


Honesty. Meditative. 


Consanguinity. 


Works. 


Easy, 


Hopefully. Mediation. 

WORDS. 


Oceanica. 



CLASSIFICATION. 

Remark. — In a Discourse, words are used — 

1. As Names of beings, places, or things ; 

2. As Substitutes for names or facts ; 

3. As Qualifiers or Limiters of names ; 

4. To assert action, being, or condition; 

5. To modify an assertion or a quality ; 

6. To express relations of things or of thoughts ; 

7. To introduce or to connect Words and Sentences ; 

8. To express a sudden or an intense emotion ; or, 

9. For Rhetorical effect. 

Hence, by their uses — 

Words are distinguished as, 



1. Nouns, 

2. Pronouns, 

3. Adjectives, 

4. Verbs, 



5. Adverbs, 

6. Prepositions, 

7. Conjunctions, 

8. Exclamations, and 



9. Words of 'Euphony. 



Def. 10. — A Word used as the name of a being, of 
place, or of a thing, is called 

A Noun. 

Examples. — God— man— sea— way— wonders— emotion. 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART I. 

Def. 11. — A Word used for a Noun, is called 
A Pronoun. 

Example s .— I— thou— he— she— -it— -who— what— that. 

Def. 12. — A Word used to qualify, or otherwise limit a 
Noun or a Pronoun, is called 

An Adjective. 

Examples.— Mysterious [way]— his [wonders]— #te [sea]. 

Def. 13. — A Word used to assert an act, being, or state, 
of a person or of a thing, is called 

A Verb. 

Examples.— [God] moves— [He] plants— [Day] declines. 

Def. 14. — A Word used to modify the signification of a 
Verb, of an Adjective, or of another Modifier, is called 

An Adverb. 

Examples.— 1. " A mist rose slowly from the lake. 1 ' 

2. " The task was exceedingly difficult." 

3. " He came between us very oft." 

Def. 15. — A Word used to express a relation of words 
to each other, is called 

A Preposition. 

Examples. — 1. "At midnight, in his guarded tent, 

2. The Turk was dreaming o/'the hour." 

Def. 16. — A Word used to connect Words, Phrases, and 
Sentences, is called 

A Conjunction. 

Examples.— 1. " And I am glad that he has lived thus long." 
2. " God created the heaven and the earth." 



WORDS— CLASSIFICATION-. 19 

Def. 17. — A "Word used to express a sudden or intense 
emotion, is called 

An Exclamation. 

Examples. — Alas ! — oh I — shocking ! 

Def. 18. — A Word used chiefly for the sake of sound, 
is called 

A Word of Euphony. 

Examples. — 1. " There are no idlers here." 

2. " Now, then, we are prepared to define onr position." 

3. ''''Even in our ashes, live their wonted fires. " 

Obs. — For observations on " Words of Euphony " see Part II. 
Questions fob Review. 

PAGE 

15. What is Language ? See Def. 1. 

What language is Natural? — what, Artificial ? . . . See Obs. 1. 
Artificial language is how distinguished ? 

What is Spoken Language ? See Def. 2. 

What is Written Language ?. . . , See Def. 3. 

What is Grammar ? See Def. 4. 

16. What is English Grammar ? See Def. 5. 

What is a Letter? See Def. 6. 

What is a Word? See Def. 7. 

What is a Phrase ? See Def. 8. 

17. What is a Sentence? See Def. 9. 

By their uses, how are words classified ? 

What is a Noun ? See Def. 10. 

18. What is a Pronoun? See Def. 11. 

What is an Adjective ? See Def. 12. 

What is a Verb ? See Def. 13. 

What is an Adverb ? See Def. 14. 

What is a Preposition ? See Def. 15. 

What is a Conjunction ? See Def. 16. 

19. What is an Exclamation ? See Def. 17. 

What is a Word of Euphony? See Def. 18. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART L 

PHRASES. 
ANALYSIS OF PHRASES. 

. t} 7 r C Principal Elements and 

A Phrase consists 01 < . ,. . ™ , 

£ Adjunct Elements. 

Def. 19. — The Principal Elements of a Phrase 

are the words necessary to its structure. 

Examples .—Of light— round path— amid shade— by consequences— of youth. 

1. "Rays | of limpid light | gleamed | round their path | ." 

2. "Birds sang | amid the sprouting shade | ." 

3. "Manhood is disgraced j by the consequences \ of neglected youth | ." 

Def. 20. — The Adjuncts of a Phrase are the words 
used to modify or limit the offices of other words in the 
Phrase. 

Examples.— Limind— their— the whispering— the varied. 

1. " Rays | of limpid light | gleamed | round their path | ." 

2. "Birds sang | amid the ivhispering shade | ." 

3. " See ! Winter comes | to rule the varied year { ." 

The Principal Elements of a Phrase consist of 
The Leader and the Subsequent. 

Def. 21.— The Leader of a Phrase is the word 
used to introduce the Phrase — generally connecting its 
Subsequent to the word which the Phrase modifies or 
limits. 

Examples .—Like— in — of— of— To— question. 

1. "Like a spirit J it [ came, | in the van [ of& storm | ." 

2. "Enough | remains | of glimmering light | 

To guide the wanderer's steps aright | ." 

3. " The previous question being demanded, | the debate closed. 1 ' 

Obs. — The Leader of a Phrase is commonly the first word in 
position — but not always ; Adjuncts may precede. [See the last 
example.] 



PHRASES-ANALYSIS OF PHRASES. 21 

!A Preposition, 
A Participle, 
A Substantive. 

Examples.— 1. " I am monarch of all I survey ; 

My right there is none to dispute." 

2. kC Taking a madman's sword | to prevent | his doing mischief, | can not be 
regarded j as robbing him J ." 

3. " The evening star having disappeared, | we returned to the castle." 

Def. 22.— A Participle is a word derived from a 
Verb, retaining the signification of its verb, while it also 
performs the office of some other "part of speech." 

Obs.— For obervations on Participles, see page 111. 

Def. 23.— The Subsequent of a Phrase is the Ele- 
ment which follows the Leader as its object of action or 
relation, or which depends on it in construction. 

Examples.— Parted— fta#— great-coats- comforters— handkerchiefs— mouth— 

ears— walking-canes— feet. 
" At parting, j too, there was a long ceremony | in the hall, | buttoning up 
great-coats, \ tying on woolen comforters,— terns silk handkerchiefs over the 
mouth and up to the ears, and grasping sturdy walking-canes to snpport un- 
steady feet." 

( A Word, 
The Subsequent of a Phrase may be \ A Phrase, or 

( A Sentence. 

Examples. 

1. A Word.—" Sweet was the sound, when oft | at evening's close \ 

Up yonder hill | the village murmur rose." 

2. A Phrase.—" A habit | of moving quickly, | is another way | of gaining 
time j ." 

3. A Sentence.—" The footman, in his usual phrase, 

Comes up with ' Madam, dinner stays." " 

q bs> 1 .—The Subsequent of a Phrase is sometimes suppressed. 
Example.— " These crowd around, to ask him of his health." 



22 



ENGLISH GBAMMAB—PABT I. 



Obs. 2.— When any Element of a Phrase is suppressed, that part 
of the Phrase which is expressed — whether Leader, Subsequent, or 
Adjunct— is to be regarded as the representative of the whole Phrase, 
and in the analysis of a Sentence, it should be construed as the 
whole Phrase would be if fully expressed. 

Examples.— 1. " These crowd around,'''' i. e., around him. 

2. " William will come home" i. e., to his home. 

3. " Mary has come to school early," i. e., at an early hour. 

" Around'' as an Element in the Sentence, is an Adverb— for it is 
a representative of the Adverbial Phrase, around him. 

"Around" as an Element in the Phrase, is a Preposition — show- 
ing a relation of " crowd" to " him," understood. 

" Home" as an Element in the Sentence, is an Adverb — for it is a 
representative of the Adverbial Phrase, to his home. 

" Home" as an Element in the Phrase, is a Noun— Object of the 
Preposition to, understood. 

" Early," as an Element in the Sentence, is an Adverb — for it is a 
representative of the Adverbial Phrase, at an early hour. 

" Early," as an Element in the Phrase, is an Adjective — used to 
limit the word hour, understood. 



PHRASES 

consist of 



RECAPITULATION". 
Leader 



Pkistcipal 
Elements, 



and 



Adjunct 
Elements. 



1 



Subsequent . 



Adjective . , 



Adverbial 



' Preposition. 
I Participle. 
> Substantive. 

Word. 
Phrase. 

. Sentence. 

Word. 

Phrase. 

Sentence. 

Word. 

Phrase. 

Sentence. 



PHRASES-CLASSIFICATION. 23 

CLASSIFICATION. 

( by their uses. 
Remark.— Phrases are distinguished •] by their farms, and 

( by their structure. 

I. The Offices of Phrases. 
Remark.— Phrases are used as substitutes for Nouns, Adjectives, 
and Adverbs ; or they are independent in construction. Hence, by 
their offices. 

Phrases are distinguished as, 



1. Substantive, 

2. Adjective, 



8. Adverbial, 
4. Independent. 



X) EF# 24.— A Substantive Phrase is a phrase used 
as the Subject or the Object of a Verb, or the Object of 
a Preposition. 

Examples— 1. " To be, contents his natural desire." 

2. « His being a minister, prevented his rising to civil power." 

3. " I doubted his having been a soldier:" 

4. « The crime of being a young man, I shall attempt neither to 

palliate nor deny." 
What " contents his natural desire V" 

« To be"—i. e. y mere existence. 
" I doubted"— What? 

" His having been a soldier." 
" The crime of"— What? 

" Being a young man." 
Obs.— Such Phrases are called Substantive Phrases, because they 
perform offices similar to those of Nouns and of Pronouns. 

Def. 25.— An Adjective Phrase is a phrase used 
to qualify or limit the application of a Noun or of a 
Pronoun. 

S Examples.— 1. " The time of my departure is at hand." 

2. "Forgetting the things that are behind, I press forward." 

What " time ?" 

" Of my departure." 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART I. 

Examples.— 3. " The dishes of luxury cover his table.'" 
What " dishes ?" 

" Of luxury." 

Eem. — Whenever a Phrase is used to qualify or describe a Noun 
or a Pronoun, it is Adjective. 

Def. 26. — An Adverbial Phrase is a phrase used 
to modify the signification of a Verb, of an Adjective, or 
of an Adverb. 

Examples.— 1. " God moves in a mysterious way." 

2. "He is powerful/or evil— impotent for good" 

" God moves"— How ? 

" In a mysterious way." 
" Powerful" — In what respect f 

" For evil." 

Hem. — Any Phrase used to ask or to answer the questions how f 
why? where? when? etc., is Adverbial. 

Def. 27.— An Independent Phrase is a phrase not 
grammatically connected with any other element. 

Example.—" The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises." 

Obs. — The office of an Independent Phrase is Logical, not Gram- 
matical. Thus, in the sentence, " The hour having arrived, we 
commenced the exercises," the phrase " the hour having arrived," 
indicates the time of commencing the exercises ; but it is not joined 
to the word " commenced" by any connecting word. 

II. The Forms of Phrases. 
Phrases are distinguished also by their forms, as, 



1. Prepositional, 

2. Infinitive, 



3. Participial, 

4. Independent. 



Def. 28. — A Prepositional Phrase is a phrase in- 



PHRASES-CLASSIFICATION. 25 

troduced by a Preposition, having a Noun or a Pronoun 
as its object of relation. 

Examples.— 1. " In a mysterious way." " Tb me. 11 

2. " The time o/wy departure is aZ handy 

Def. 29.— An Infinitive Phrase is a phrase intro- 
duced by the Preposition to, haying a Verb as its object 
of relation. 

Examples.— 1. " To love"—" To study"—" To be diligent" 

2. " We ought not to be satisfied with present attainments." 

3. " I sit me down a pensive hour to spend." 

Def. 30.— A Participial Phrase is a phrase intro- 
duced by a Participle, haying an Object or an Adjunct. 

Examples .— 1. " Scaling yonder peak." 

" Scaling yonder peak I saw an eagle." 

2. Moving quickly— gaining time. 
" A habit of moving quickly, 

is another way of gaining time." 

3. Crushed to earth. 

" Truth crushed to earth will rise again." 

Def. 31.— An Independent Phrase is a phrase in- 
troduced by a Noun or a Pronoun, followed by a Parti- 
ciple depending upon it. 

Examples.-!. The cars having left, we chartered a coach. 
2. " Thus talking, hand being in hand, 

And they passed on to their blissful bower." 

III. The Structure of Phrases. 

PRINCIPLE. 

' Simple or Compound, 
Transitive or Intransitive, 

By their structure, Phrases ^ Principa i or Auxiliary, 
are distinguished as Complex, 

, Mixed, 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAB—PABT I. 

Dee. 32. — A Simple Phrase is a phrase haying but 
one Leader and one Subsequent. 

Examples.— 1. " Enough remains of glimmering light, 

2. To guide the wanderer's steps aright." 

3. " Thought meeting thought, and will preventing will." 

Dee. 33. — A Compound Phrase is a phrase having 
two or more Leaders or Subsequents joined in the same 
construction. 

Examples.— 1. "The engraver has placed the Conjunction without and 
above the circle.''' 

2. "Rewarding and punishing actions by any other 

rule, would appear much harder to he accounted for, by 
minds formed as he has formed ours. 1 ' 

3. "The whole animal kingdom is in a state #* constant decay 

and renovation." 

4. "Habits, formed in childhood and youth, last a whole 

lifetime." 

Dee. 34.— A Transitive Phrase is a phrase whose 
Subsequent is a Transitive Verb or Participle. 

Examples.— 1. " He does not venture to try the effect of his imperial voice, 
in hushing its stormy billows, and bidding its proud 
ivaves to stay themselves at his feet." 

Dee. 35.— An Intransitive Phrase is a phrase 
whose Subsequent is a Noun or a Pronoun, or an Intran- 
sitive Verb or Participle. 

Examples.— 1. " I call to you with all my voice" 

2. " To die, to sleep, perchance to dream." 

3. " I saw an eagle, wheeling near its brow." 

Dee. 36.— A Complex Phrase is a phrase whose 
Leader, Subsequent, or Adjunct, is qualified by another 
phrase. 

Examples.— 1. " Some in the fields of purest ether play, 

And hask and whiten in the blaze of day." 

2. " The greatest possible intimacy should never induce you 
to dispense w\th politeness." 



PHRASES— BEGAPITULA TION. 



27 



3. " The office of wisely developing the minds of young 

women, should be ranked among the most honorable 
employments in the land." 

4. " Long years have elapsed since I gazed on the scene, 

Which my fancy still robed in its freshness of green." 

5. " Dost thou aspire to judge between the Lord 

Of Nature and his works f" 

Def. 37. — A Mixed Phrase is a compound phrase, 
having one or more Transitive Subsequents and one or 
more Intransitive Subsequents. 

Examples. — 1. " Forbade to ivade through slaughter to a throne, 
And shut the gates of mercy on mankind.'" 

2. " The old gentleman had never entertained the idea of Wil- 
liam's leaving home and engaging in business for himself." 



RECAPITULATION. 



Uses. 



PHRASES 

are distinguished by 
their 



Forms. 



Structure. < 



Substantive. 
Adjective. 
Adverbial. 
, Independent. 

r Prepositional. 

Infinitive. 

Participial. 
^ Independent. 

Simple. 

Compound. 

Transitive. 

Intransitive. 

Principal. 

Auxiliary. 

Complex. 

Mixed. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PABT I. 



Questions for Review. 

PAGE 

20. What are the Distinct Elements of Phrases ? 

What are Principal Elements of Phrases ? See Def. 19. 

20. What are Adjunct Elements of Phrases ? See Def. 20. 

The Principal Elements consist of what ? 

What is the Leader of a Phrase ? Def. 21. 

21. It may consist of what ? 

What is the Subsequent of a Phrase ? Def. 23. 

It may consist of what ? 

23. In how many ways are Phrases distinguished ? 
By their offices how are Phrases classified ? 

What is a Substantive Phrase ? — an Adjective Phrase ? Def. 24, 25. 

24. What is an Adverbial Phrase? Def. 26. 

What is an Independent Phrase ? Def. 27. 

By their forms how are Phrases classified? 

What is a Prepositional Phrase ? Def. 28. 

25. What is an Infinitive Phrase ? Def. 29. 

What is a Participial Phrase ? Def. 30. 

What is an Independent Phrase ? Def. 31. 

By their structure, how are Phrases distinguished ? 

What is a Simple Phrase ? — a Compound Phrase ? . . Def. 32, 33. 

26. What is a Transitive Phrase ? , Def. 34. 

What is an Intransitive Phrase ? Def. 35. 

What is a Complex Phrase? — a Mixed Phrase? Def. 36, 37. 



SENTENCES. 

Remark. — A Sentence may be resolved into its Elements. 

Def. 38.— The Elements of a Sentence are the 

parts which enter into its structure. 

Rem. — In the structure of Sentences, certain general principles 
are involved, which are common to all languages. 

1. We have that of which something is declared. This is called 
the Subject of the Sentence. 

2. There must be a word or words used to declare — positively, 



SENTENCES—THEIR ELEMENTS. 29 

negatively, interrogatively, or conditionally— something of the sub- 
ject. This is called the Predicate. 

These two parts are essential to the structure of a Sentence. 

3. The Predicates of some Sentences assert acts which pass over 
to some persons or things. 

The names of such persons, places, or things are called Object 
Elements. 

4 There are often other Elements, used to qualify, to limit, or to 
modify the various parts of Sentences. These are called Adjunct 
Elements. 

The Parts of a Sentence j Principal Elements, and 
are distinguished as ( Adjunct Elements. 

Dee. 39.— The Principal Elements of a Sentence 

are the parts which make the unqualified assertion. 

Examples.— 1. Birds fly. 

2. The sun shines. 

3. " Tbe night passed away in song." 

4. " The mountains showed their gray heads." 

5. " Thy bounty shines in Autumn, unconfined, 

And spreads a common feast for all that live.'" 

6. " The king of shadows loves a shining mark." 

7. " In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth." 

Def. 40.— The Adjunct Elements of a Sentence 

are such as describe or modify other elements. 

Examples.— 1. " The | night passed | away | in song." 

2. " The | king | of shadows \ loves | a | shining | mark." 

3. " There \ in his noisy mansion, \ skilled to rule, \ 

4. The | village \ master | taught | his \ little | school | ." 

Rem.— There are still other words, which are neither Principal 
Elements nor Adjuncts,— words which are sometimes used in con- 
nection with the Sentence, but which do not constitute an integral 
part of it. Hence, 

Dee. 41. — "Words accompanying a Sentence without 
entering into its structure, are called 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- PART L 



Attendant Elements* 

Examples.— 1. " Lend me your songs, ye nightingales!" 

2. " Liberty! I wait for thee. 11 

3. " There are no idlers here. 11 

4. " I sit me down, a pensive hour to spend." 

5. " Even in our ashes live their wonted fires. 11 

6. "Friends, Bomans, Countrymen! lend me your ears." 



PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. 

ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION. 

The Principal Elements of a Sentence are, 

The Subject, | The Yvedicate, | The Object. 

Obs — Every Sentence must have, at least, one Subject and one 
Predicate, expressed or understood. 

The Subject. 

Def. 42.— The Subject of a Sentence is that of which 
something is asserted. 

Obs. 1.— The Subject of a Sentence is always Substantive in its 
office ; it may be a Noun, or a Word, a Phrase, or a Sentence used 
for a Noun. It may be determined by its answering the question 
who? or what? placed before the Predicate. 

EXAMPLES. 

a. A Noun.—l. Birds Ay.— What fly ? 

2. " Knmvledge is power. 1 '— What is power ? 

3. " Truth crushed to earth, will rise again. 1 ' 

b. A Pronoun.— 4. We come.— Who come? 

5. They are satisfied.— Who are satisfied ? 

6. " They that seek me early, shall find me. 11 

c. A Phrase.— -1. " To do good, is the duty of all men. 11 — What is duty? 

8. " His being a minister, prevented his rising to civil power. 11 - 

d. A Sentence.— §. " At what time he took orders, doth not appear. 11 

10. " That all men are created equal, is a self-evident truth. 11 — What is 
a self-evident truth ? 



SENTENCES— THEIR ELEMENTS. 31 

Obs. 2.— A Subject of a Sentence having Adjuncts, is called a 
Modified Subject. 

Example.—" The king of shadows loves a shining mark." 

The Predicate. 

Dee. 43.— The Predicate of a Sentence is the 

Word or Words that express what is asserted of the 
Subject. 

Obs.— The Predicate consists of a Verb, with or without an- 
other Verb, a Participle, an Adjective, a Noun, a Pronoun, or a 
Preposition. 

Examples. 

a. A Verb only— 1. Birds fly. 

2. Quadrupeds run. 

3. " Here steeps he now alone." 



b. Two Verbs— 4. We shall go. 

5. I do remember. 

6. " Ye shall not in the lofty pine 

Disturb the sparrow's nest." 

C. A Fer5 and a Participle.- -7. John was injured. 

8. Willie is reading. 

9. 4i Thou ar£ perched aloft on the beetling crag." 

a\ A Fero and an Adjective.— 10. James became poor. 

11. Warner is steepy. 

12. " And the waves are ?£ftite below." 

e. A Fer& and a Noun.— 13. God is love. 

14. We are friends. 

15. " The proper sMy of mankind is man." 

/. A Verb and a Pronoun. —16. It is /. 

17. TOo are you? 

18. " Thine is the kingdom. 1 ' 

g. A Ferft and a Preposition.— 19. Its idle hopes are o'er. 
20. That business lias been attended to. 

Remakks.— The Predicate is varied not only inform, but also in 
its functions. 

1. It may assert an act— as, William walks. 

2. It may assert being— -as, God exists. 

3. It may assert quality— -as, Sugar is sweet, 

4. It may assert possession— as, " Thine is the kiugdom." 

5. It may assert identity— as, It & J. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART I. 

6. It may assert condition— &$, " Its idle hopes are o'er." 

7. It may assert change of condition— as, " His palsied hand 

waxed strong" 

Logical Pbedicate. 
Grammatical Predicate. 

Obs. 1.— The term " Predicate" has two applications— a Logical 
and a Grammatical. The Logical Predicate includes the Grammati- 
cal Predicate and its Object. Thus, in the sentence, 

u The king of shadows loves a shining mark," 
" Loves a shining mark,' 1 is the Logical Predicate ; 
" Loves'" is the Grammatical Predicate. 

Obs. 2.— In Sentences that have no Objects, the Logical and the 
Grammatical Predicates are identical. Thus, in the sentence, 

" The oaks of the mountains fall," 
" Fall " is both the Logical and the Grammatical Predicate. 

Obs. 3.— The Modified Predicate includes the Grammatical Predi- 
cate and its Adjuncts. Thus, in the sentence, 

" Hollow winds are in the pines, 
" Are in the pines; 1 is the Modified Predicate of " winds." 
" Are" is the Grammatical Predicate. 

The Object. 
Rem.— The Object of a Sentence, being distinct from the Gram- 
matical Predicate, is properly regarded as a distinct Element in the 
structure of such Sentences as contain Objects. Hence, 

Def. 44.— The Object of a Sentence is the Word or 
Words on which the act, expressed by the Predicate, 
terminates. 

Obs. 1.-— The Object of a Sentence is a Noun, or a Word, a Phrase, 
or a Sentence used for a Koun. It may be determined by its an- 
swering the question whom? or what? placed immediately after 
the Predicate. 

Examples. 

a. A Noun.— 1. John saws icood— saws what f 

2. Birds build nests— build what f 

3. " Shall joy light the face of the Indian ?" 



ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 33 

b. A Pwnoun.-A. I have seen him— seen whom? 

5. Whom seekest thou ? 

6. " Oft the shepherd called thee to his flock." 

c. A Phrase.— -7. " 1 regret his being absent."— I regret what? 

d. A Sentence.- -8. " The fool hath said in his heart, 77*ere is wo £od." 

9. " And God said, 7^ £/ier£ be light." 

Modified Object. 

Obs. 2.— An Object that has Adjuncts is said to be modified. 

Example— We have reached the end of the chapter. Here "end" is the 
Object. " The end of the chapter" is the Modified Object. 



ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. 

ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION. 

( A Word, 

An Adjunct Element may be \ A Phrase, or 

( A Sentence. 

Examples. 

a. A Word.— 1. We were walking homeward — Whither ? 

2. We shall arrive soon.— When f 

3. " Darkly waves eacft #ta£ bough. 1 ' 

&. A Phrase— 1. We were walking toward home— Whither ? 
2. We shall arrive itt a sto£ time.— When ? 

c. A Sentence.—!. Students, wAo sfady, will improve. 
2. Students will improve, £/ they study. 

Rem.— Adjuncts are used to limit or describe things, or to modify 
acts or qualities. Hence, 

( A-diective or 
Adjuncts are distinguished as -j AdverUaL 

Obs. 1— J^cfe J.$tmcfe, whether Words, Phrases, or Sen- 
tences, are such as answer the questions, What? What kind? 
Whose? How many? etc. They are attached, in construction, to 
Nouns and to Pronouns. 

Obs. 2.— Adverbial Adjuncts— Words, Phrases, or Sentences— are 
such as answer the questions, How? Why? Where? Whence? 
Whither? etc. They are attached to Verbs, to Adjectives, to Parti- 
ciples, and to Adverbs. 



34: ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART 1. 

Logical Adjuncts. 

Obs. 3.— Words, Phrases, and Sentences, having no Grammatical 
connection with other Elements in a Sentence, often perform Ad- 
junct offices, by limiting or modifying the application of other Ele- 
ments. Such are properly called Logical Adjuncts. 

Examples. 

a. Words.- 1. Webster, the Statesman, is remotely related to Webster, the 

Lexicographer. 

b. Phrases.— 1. " Napoleon having fallen, there is no more cause for alarm." 

c. Sentence.— " It is possible that Anna will come." 

Rem.— The words " Statesman" and " Lexicographer" are used to 
distinguish the two "Websters;" the Phrase "Napoleon having 
fallen," to tell why there is no more cause for alarm; and "Anna 
will come," is a Sentence used to tell what is meant by the word " it" 

Questions for Keview. 

PAGE 

28. What is a Sentence f g ee j) e f. gg 

29. How are the Elements of Sentences classified ? 

What are Principal Elements of a Sentence ? See Def. 39. 

What are Adjunct Elements f See jj e f 49 

30. What are Attendant Elements f See Def 4l! 

What are the Principal Elements of a Sentence V 

What is the Subject of a Sentence ? See Def. 42. 

By what method can you ascertain what is the 

Subject of any Sentence ? See Obs. 1. 

Make a Sentence having a Word Subject. 
Make a Sentence having a Phrase Subject. 
Make a Sentence having a Sentence Subject. 

31. What is a Modified Subject ? 

What is the Predicate of a Sentence ? See Def. 43. 

32. What is a Logical Predicate ? 
What is a Grammatical Predicate ? 
What is a Modified Predicate ? 

What is the Object ? See Def. 44. 

How can you determine what is the Object of any 
Sentence? See Obs. 1. 

33. What is a Modified Object ? See Obs. 2. 

What are Adjunct Elements of Sentences ? 



ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 



35 



Adjunct Elements may consist of what? 
Make a Sentence having a Word Adjunct. 
Make a Sentence having a Phrase Adjunct. 
Make a Sentence having a Sentence Adjunct. 
What is a Logical Adjunct ? 



.See Obs. 3. 



RECAPITULATION. 



o 

GO 



Pkincipal 
Elements. 



Subject . 



(Word,.. 

I Phrase.. 
[ Sentence. 



Object . 



Grammati- 
cal 



Adjunct 
Elements. 1 



Logical 



( Noun. 
( Pronoun. 
. . Substantive, 
..Substantive. 



Predicate.. '■* 



£ ^ another Verb. 
*g g a Participle. 
pq ^ an Adjective. 

a Noun. 



t> ^ a Pronoun. 
<3 ° a Preposition. 



j Word . . . 

1 Phrase.. 
^Sentence 



Word,. 
Phrase. 



( Noun. 
( Pronoun, 
. . Substantive, 
. . Substantive. 

j Adjective. 
( Adverb, 
j Adjective. 
1 Adverbial. 



a , ( Adjective. 

Sentmce ' (Adverbial. 



Word. 



Phrase. 



Sentence. 



d 



1 d J* _L 



d w a> 



CD 



-g d.2,-H O-H 

-+^> d !-? .d -U r^2 

DQ H g~ tb O ^ 

r& <*> -+3 O CD <» 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART L 

Exercises m Analysis. 

" God moves in a mysterious way, 
His wonders to perform ; 
He plants his footsteps in the sea 
And rides upon the storm." 

Quest Of whom is something asserted in the lines above written ? 
Am. Something is said concerning " God? 

What is said of God ? 
A. God "moves? 

How does God move ? 
A. "In a mysterious way? 

" God moves in a mysterious way" — why ? 
A. " To perform Ms wonders? 

Concerning tchom is something more said ? 
A. Something more is said concerning " God. 

Why do you think so ? 
A. Because, in this connection, "He" means God. 

What more is said of God ? 
A. He "plants." 

He plants what f 
A. He plants "footsteps? 

He plants whose footsteps ? 
A. " His" footsteps. 

He plants his footsteps — where? 
A. " In the sea? 

What more is said of God ? 
A. He " rides? 

He rides — where f 
A. " Upon the storm? 

In the lines written above, what is the use or office of the 
word " God ?" 
A. It is used to tell who " moves." 

What is the use of the word " moves V 
A. To tell what God does. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 37 

What is the use of " in a mysterious way f n 
A. To tell how God mores. 

What is the use of " Ms wonders to perform ?" 
A. To tell for what purpose God moves. 

What is the use of" He ?" 
A. To tell who " plants footsteps" and " rides." 

What is the use of "plants?" 
A. To tell what " He" does. 

What is the use of " his ?" 
A. To tell whose footsteps. 

What is the use of "footsteps ?" 
A. To tell what He plants. 

What is the use of " in the sea ?" 
A. To tell ivhere He plants footsteps. 

What is the use of " rides?" 
A. To tell what " He" does. 

What is the use of " upon the storm ?" 
A. To tell where He rides. 

Remark.— The young Pupil has seen, in this exposition of the 
four lines written above, that words have meaning ; and that when 
they are properly put together, they convey the thoughts of the 
person who wrote them, to those who read them. 

U2T Let the following Sentences be analyzed in the same man- 
ner— tae teacher being careful to ask appropriate questions. 

1. " The 1 sun \ rose | on the sea \ ." 

2. " A | mist | rose | slowly | from the lake | ." 

3. "The | night \ passed \ away | in song | ." 

4. "Morning \ returned | in joy | ." 

5. " The | mountains \ showed \ their | gray 1 heads | . 

6. u The | blue [face | of ocean | smiled | ." 

^ "Bay | declines | ." 

8. " Hollow | winds \ are | in the pines | ." 

9. "Darkly | moves | each | giant 1 bough, \ 

O'er the sky's last crimson glow | ." 
10 t " Nature's | richest j dyes \ 

Are floating | o'er Italian skies." 

11. " A golden staff his steps supported." 

12. " The dying notes still murmur on the string." 

13. ■' A purple robe his dying frame shall fold." 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART L 

14. "At the heaving billows, stood the me&gei'form of Care" 

15. " Oft the shepherd called thee to his flock. 11 

16. <k The comely tear steals o'er the cheek. 1 ' 

17. " The storms of wintry Time will quickly pass." 

18. " Thus in some deep retiremenr, would I pass 

The winter- glooms, with friends of picasant soul." 

19. " Then comes the father of the tempest forth, 

Wrapt in thick glooms." 

20. " Thy bounty shines in Autumn, unconfined, 

And spreads a common feast for all that live." 

21. " Some in the fields of purest ether play, 

And bask and whiten in the blaze of day. 11 

22. " On thy fair bosom, waveless stream, 

The dipping paddle echoes far, 

And. flashes in the moonlight gleam." 

23. " Who can observe the careful ant, 

And not provide for future want." 

24. " Nature with folded hands seemed there, 

Kneeling at her evening prayer." 

25. " The woods 

Threw their cool shadows freshly to the west." 

26. " The clear dew is on the blushing bosoms 

Of crimson roses, in a holy rest. 11 

27. " Spring calls out each voice of the deep blue sky." 

28. " Thou' rt journeying to thy spirit's home, 

Where the skies are ever clear." 

29. "A summer breeze 
Parts the deep masses of the forest shade, 
And lets a sunbeam through. 11 

30. " The pines grew red with morning." 

31. " Sin hath broke the world's sweet peace— unstrung 

Th' harmonious chords to which the angels sung." 

32. " And eve, along the western skies, 

Spreads her intermingling dyes." 

33. " The blooming morning oped her dewy eye." 

34. " No marble marks thy couch of lowly sleep ; 

35. But living statues there are seen to weep." 

36. "A distant torrent faintly roars. 11 

37. " His gray locks slowly waved in the wind, 

And glittered to the beam of night." 

38. " Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield." 

39. " Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke." 

40. " How jocund did they drive their team afield !" 

41. " How bowed the woods beneath their sturdy stroke !" 

42. " The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, 

The swallow, twittering from the straw-built shed, 
The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, 
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed." 



DIAGRAMS— GENERAL RULES. 

DIAGRAMS. 



39 



Kem —The office of an Element in a Sentence determines its posi- 
tion in the Diagram, according to the following 



(5.) 



GENERAL EULES. 
A. 



CUD 



( 5PGz 



3S 




(6.) 



B. 



^TZO^— " ^ 



ens 



3) 



3EF 



J 






J7jll8jll9 



Eule 1.— The Principal Elements of a Sentence are 
placed uppermost, and on the same horizontal line ;— as 
(1), (2), (3), Diagrams A and b. 

Eule 2.— The Subject of a Sentence takes the first 
place ;_as, (1) and (10), Diagrams A, and (1), (6), and 
(25), b. ' 

Eule 3.— The Predicate of a Sentence is placed to the 
right of the Subject— attached ;— as (2) and (11), A r and 
(2), (7), (11), and (26), b. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART I. 

Eule 4.— The Object of a Sentence is placed to the 
right of the Predicate— attached ;— as (3), a, and (3), (12), 
and ( X ), B. 

Eule 5.— An Adjunct of a Sentence is placed beneath 
the Word which it limits or modifies— attached : as, (4) 
(5), (6), (7), (12), (13), (14), (17), (18), (23), a, and (4 ,' 
(5), (8), (9), (17), (18), (19), (20), (23), (24), b. 

Eule 6.— If the Adjunct is a Phrase, its Leader is at- 
tached to the Word which it limits: as, (15), (19), (25) 
A, and (15), (21), b. ' - ■ ' 

_ Eule 7.— The Subsequent of a Phrase is placed to the 
right of its Leader— attached ; as (20 and 21) to the right 
of (19)— (26) to the right of (25)— (16) of (15), A, and 
(22) of (21)-(16) of (15), b. 

Eule 8.— If the Adjunct is a Sentence, it is attached 
by a line to the Word which the Adjunct Sentence limits ; 
as, the Adjunct Sentence within the dotted line (6), is 
attached by the line from (2) to (9), a, and (6 to 19 in- 
clusive) is attached to (1), b. 

Eule 9.— A Logical Adjunct is placed beneath the 
Word which it describes, but not attached. [See "Eod- 
eric," page 41.] 

Eule 10.— A Conjunction used to introduce a Sentence 
is placed above the Predicate of the Sentence which it in- 
troduces ; as, (a), used to introduce the Sentence (1, 2, 3), 
A, and (9), introducing the Adjunct Sentence (10, 11), a, 
and (o), introducing the Sentence (1, 2, 3), b. 

Eule 11.— A Conjunction used to connect Words, 
Phrases, or Sentences, similar in construction, is placed 
between the Elements connected ; as, (10), connecting 
(11) to (7), B. [See also Diagram, page 43.] 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 41 

Rule 12.— A Relative Pronoun or a Possessive Adjec- 
tive used to introduce an Adjunct Sentence, is attached 
to the " antecedent" by a line ; as (6) attached to (1) and 
(X) attached to (22), B. 

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 

,.« (in their Forms and 
REMAKK.-Sentences differ -j ^ ^ ^ 

1. Some Sentences assert the te#, condition, or jfofe of a person 
or of a thing— or an act which does not pass over to an Object, 

2. Otliersassert acts which terminate on Objects. 

3. Some Sentences assert but one fact— others assert more than 

4 Some assert an Independent or a Principal Proposition- oth- 
ers a secondary or qualifying proposition. Hence, by theiv forms, 

Sentences are distinguished as, 

Intransitive, Transitive, or Mixed. 
Simple, Compound, or Complex. 

By their uses, Sentences are distinguished as, 

( Declarative, 

Principal \ Interrogative, or 

( Imperative. 

or 

( Substantive, 

Auxiliary \ Adjective, or 

( Adverbial. 

Dee. 43.— An Intransitive Sentence is a Sentence 
that asserts condition, being, or state— or an act which 
does not terminate on an Object. 

Examples. 

tv\ ( William Y sleeps } 

1. William sleeps. K " J v ■ 

2. Errors abound. I 4. God is love. 

3 Mary is cheerful. 1 5. Mountains are elevated. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART I. 

6. "On some fond breast the parting soul relies." 

(8.) C soal T~ reiie8 ) 

Cg*-J- ( Parting ) (on) b re a St ~) 
{ some )l fond J 

Obs.— An Intransitive Sentence contains one or more Subjects 
and Predicates,— but no Object. 

GUT Let each Pupil make an Intransitive Sentence. 

Def. 44.— A Transitive Sentence is a Sentence that 
asserts an act which terminates on an Object. 

Examples. 

(9.) 

1. John saws wood. ( John Y sawB Y wood \ 

2. Industry promotes health and wealth. 

3. " I thank thee, Roderick, for the word." 

(10 ' } ciD n^n~^ — ) 

Mlie J v J 

Obs.— A Transitive Sentence has at least one Subject, one Predi- 
cate, and one Object. 

HEP 38 Let each Pupil make a Transitive Sentence. 

Def. 45.— A Simple Sentence is a Sentence that 
asserts but one proposition. 

Examples. 

1. William sleeps. (!*•) ( William ]( sleeps ) 

2. Mary is cheerful. 

3. Virtue secures happiness. 

4. " The king of shadows loves a shining mark." 
,| 2 v (^ Ki ng jf loves Y mark J 

^(ofj^h^Q LLil Bhiniiig / 

Obs.— A Simple Sentence can have but one Subject, one Pmfc 
cafe, and— when Transitive— one Object. 

WW Let each Pupil make a Simple Sentence. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 



43 



Def. 46.— A Compound Sentence is a Sentence 
that asserts more than one proposition. 

Examples. 

1. Anna and Mary study Latin. 

2. Temperance elevates and ennobles man. 

3. Robert studies Grammar and Arithmetic. 

4. " Slowly and sadly they climb the distant mountain, 

And read their doom in the setting sun." 



(13.) 




Obs. — A Compound Sentence has more than one Subject or 
Predicate or Object. 

Def. 46 (b). — In a Compound Sentence, the Principal 
Elements which are compounded are called Clauses. 

Obs. — The Compound Clauses may be — 

f Warner "}A ~\f~ ~\ 

(14) ( & ) study J Grammar 1 1- The Subjects only- 

f } CArthmHl a J thur stud y Gram 



Warner and Ar- 
Grammar. 



G 



"Y studies _y 



& 

recites 



7\ 2. 



I "\f "V Grammar) „ ' , ^ T . . 

( Warner J studies fT & ) 3 - The Objects 

\ A /Arithmetic ) Grammar 



The Predicates only — Warner studies 
and recites Grammar. 



j— Warner studies 
and Arithmetic. 



£ Warner"*)^ st udy 
Arthur X recite 




4. The Subjects and the Predicates — 
Warmer and Arthur study and re- 
cite Grammar. 

5. The Subjects and the Objects — War- 
ner and Arthur study Grammar 
and Arithmetic. 

-^ stiKHes X'Gramm aQ 6> The p re(Ucates and the Objects— 

' } ^^7-4-— — !t-> Warner studies and recites Gram- 

JXAnthmeticQ ^ a/ , and AHthmetiCm 



study_3^Gramm_ t r-7 7> The Subjects, the Predicates, and the 
■—-—*, — L_£J — — L & i-^ Objects— Warner and Arthur study 

^ Arthur ^ recite jQ Anthme tic) and ^^ Grammar find Arithmetic. 



44 ENGLISH GBAMMAR—PABT L 

Obs. — A Compound Sentence may have more than two clauses. 
Examples. 
1. Friendship, Love, and Truth abound. 



(15.) 



C Friendship jf 

C Love j 
(A) ~ 



( Truth" 



abound 



2. Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen 
constitute the chief elements of organ- 
ized matter. 



1 Let each Pupil make a Compound Sentence. 

Rem. — Sentence? which have Compound Predicates, often have 
Objects applicable to only a part of them. Hence, 

Def. 50. — A Compound Sentence, having one or 
more Transitive, and one or more Intransitive Predicates, 
is called a Mixed Sentence. 

Examples. 
1. " Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope." 



slept j 



(16.) [ Time j HPK2IL / flowers ^ 

lent JT^ glass 



T2 



hope J 



I his J 



Rem.—" Slept" is Intransitive ; " lent" is Transitive. 

2. The stars will then lift up their heads and rejoice. 
(17.) 



will lift X * iead s 1 Rem.—" Will lift" is 
stars W then T^) (their) Transitive; "re- 

joice" is In transi- 



The J 



fcJQlce ) tive. 



3. " I will never pant for public honors, 
Nor disturb my quiet with the affairs of state.'" 

4. " Who can observe the careful ant, 
And wot provide for future want?" 

Let each Pupil make a Mixed Sentence. 

Def. 51. — A Principal Sentence asserts an inde- 
pendent or a principal proposition. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 45 



Examples. 

1. A mortal disease was upon her vitals. 
(18.) 



( disease Y wa s J A Principal Sentence, 

> — t — v rr\ lup» ^T Simple, Intransitive. 

C A X mortal ) U j vitals ) F ' 

her ) 



2 " The FUR WARMED a BEAR. 

(19.) 



pal Sentence, 
Transitive. 



( fur Y warmed Y bear J A Princi] 

V_ _/V yV_^ -X Simple, 

( The ) ( a J F ' 

3. " He hath brought many captives to Rome." 
( 20.) 

CHe Y hath brought Y captives j A Principal Sentence, 
y\ - r A^, y Simple, Transitive. 



Def. 52. — An Auxiliary Sentence is a Sentence 
that is used as an Element in the structure of another 
Sentence or of a phrase. 

Examples. 

1. '* A mortal disease was upon her vitals before Caesar had passed 
the Rubicon." 
(21.) 

( disease J ^ was J "Before Ccesar had passed 

f a Vmi.HRfS . n |up<> . ■ s the Rubicon" is an Aux- 

(j^^mortaij | |^ glials ) fliaiy S entence-^r- 

(before) L ber J &W, because it modifies 

( Caesar j ( ^ad7^^d7 ^Iblco^) the Verb " was " 



the 



2. " The fur that warms a monarch, warmed a bear. 1 
(22.) 



fur Y warmed Y bear J H lhat warms a monarch" 
._, ^ . A___ — y is an Auxiliary Sentence 



. > . . ^ ^ ^ -y , is an Auxiliary Sentence 

I a J — A djective, because it de- 



( ^tbat ^warmBj^monarcli) u ~ „ K 

C a 3 



scribes or limits the noun 



46 ENGLISH GBAMMAR—PART L 



(23.) 



hath brought many captives to Rome, 
Whose ransom did the general coffers fill." 



r V V '. > \ 

l Be J hath brought I captives J « Whose ransom did the gen- 

S n ^ i Tmany) era ^ coffers fill" is an Aux- 

jjg f Rome J J v ; iliary Sentence— Adjective, 

/r^oln~Y did fill Y coffere) because it limits or desig- 
( \whose > (the) (gey nates the noun " captives." 

4. " Sweet was the sound, when oft, at evening's close, 

Up yonder hill the village murmur rose." 

5. " The bounding steed you pompously bestride, 

Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride." 



(24.) 



6. " I have a temple in every heart that owns my influence.'''' 

7. " To him that wishes for me, I am always present." 



CI Y have Y temple ) 

NP heart ^ I a J i 



That owns my influence" 
fej r heart J C a J is an Auxiliary Sentence 



w 



every') ) — Adjective, because it lim- 

its the noun " heart." 



Q that jf owns^nflu^ 

Cm) 



(25.) 



8. " Oft as the morning dawns, should gratitude ascend." 



( gratitude Y should ascend ^ " 0ft " is a Word Adjunct of 
V fe yV ! J SHOULD ASCEND. 

C Qft ) "^4s 27*0 morning dawns" is 

QasT) an Auxiliary Sentence — 

/-— — : >/ — r *\ Adverbial, because it modi- 

(morning Xjj^JLj fies the Adverb " oft"- 

l£? telling 7iow oft. 

9. " These lofty trees wave not less proudly, 
That their ancestors moulder beneath them.' 1 '' 

10. " Soon as the woods on shore look dim, 

We'll cheerfully sing our parting hymn." 

Def. 53. — A Principal Sentence and its Auxiliary Sen- 
tences constitute a Complex Sentence. [See Exam- 
ples above.] 

flUP Let each Pupil make a Complex Sentence. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 47 

Rem. — An Auxiliary Sentence is an Adjunct of a Word, a 
Phrase, or a Sentence going before in construction ; or it is used as 
a substitute for a noun. Hence, 

^ j ,,. ~ ■-, ( Substantive. 

Yri?s. — Auxiliary Sentences are \ .,._.. ? , 
, . , . . , -, •< Adjective, and 

distinguished as i . , , . T 

G ( Adverbial. 

Def. 54. — A Substantive Sentence is used as the 
Subject or the Object of a Sentence, or as the Object of a 
Phrase. 

Examples. 

(a) Subject Sentence. 

1. " jTAotf ^tfotf me/i sometimes commit faults, cannot be denied." 

(26.) 

7 Tbat -\ X " TAa^ #wc? men sometimes 

\^ commit faults" is an 

Auxiliary Sentence — 
Substantive; because it 
is here used as the Sub- 



' y \ commit jauits;' is an 

iit* X fauitT ) { can be denied) Auxiliary Sentence — 
^) J\ — l r-y J — Substantive; because it 
v ' is here nsprl ns the Sub- 



ject of the Principal Sentence. 
(b) Object Sentence. 

2. " But Brutus says he was ambitious.'' 
(BuT) 



"i& was ambitious" is an Auxiliary Sentence — Substantive, be- 
cause it is the Object of the Principal Sentence. 

(c) Object of a Phrase. 

3. "He was unwilling to tell when he went." 



r n^ N "When he went" is 

(28.) ^ He ^ was unwiiung ) an Auxiliary Sen- 

tence — Substantive ; 
because it is here 
used as the Object 
of the verb "tell." 

Obs. — A Sentence is often a Logical Adjunct of some word in a 
Principal Sentence. 




48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART L 



(29.) 



Examples. 
1. 4i It is possible that John will come"' 



DC jg possible ) Rem.—" That John will 



* — -^ come" is a Sentence 

L, tha used to tell what we 

C7~^TV w \w ™™ a ^ mean by the word " it." 

[ John i will come ) TT J 

v A. , ) Hence the Sentence is, 

logically, an Adjunct of that Word — being merely an equivalent or 

explanatory expression. (See p. 34, Obs. 3.) 

Rem. 2. — By omitting the word " It," the Auxiliary Sentence 
becomes grammatically the Subject in the Principal Sentence. 
Thus: 

11 That John will come, is possible. 1 ' 
(30.) 



C John j^ will come "*) 



is possible 



3 



Def. 55. — An Adjective Sentence is a Sentence 
that is used as an Adjunct of a Substantive. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. ut He that getteth wisdom loveth his own soul." 

(31.) ^_^^^ " That getteth wisdom" is 

"s^ " N/ ^ an Auxiliary Sentence, 

He Y loveth Y Bonl j Adjective; because it is 

— i ^ri? — v ^ llse( ^ as aa Adjunct of 

r~ .Tb-~v^^^vCi^7^ V mg A owu ) thp Pronoun " Hr" 



the Pronoun " He." 
2. " Them that honor me, I will honor. 11 

(32.) w " That honor <me," is an 

Auxiliary Sentence, Ad- 
jective ; because it is used 
to limit or describe the 
Pronoun " Them." 

Let the Pupils analyze and place in diagram the following 
Additional Adjective Sentences. 

3. " The bounding steed you pompously bestride 
Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride." 

4. " That life is long which answers life's great end." 

5. " The man of wealth and pride, 
Takes up a space that many poor supplied." 




CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 49 

6. " Here I come to tell ivh&t I do know."'' 

Rem.— " What I do know" 



~\ is the modified Object 



of "tell." u Which I do 



{ here ^ l t0 — ^n Y it — ^ know" is an Auxiliary 

Sentence, Adjective ; 



^5. 



C * X^ oknow X^ h '*« ) because it limits the 

Pronoun " that." 

7. John is not willing to tell what he thinks. 

Def. 56. — An Adverbial Sentence is a Sentence 
that is used as an Adjunct of a Verb, a Participle, an 
Adjective, or another Adverb. 

Examples. 

1. " They kneeled before they fought." 
(34.) 

(^ They Jf kneeled ~ ^ « Be f ore they fought" tells when 
^—-^zzim^r they kneeled. It is an Auxil- 

f (before^ \ i ai y Sentence — Adverbial. 

fcthey X~fonght j \ 

Additional Advekbial Sentences. 

2. " Where Wealth and Freedom reign, contentment fails." 

3. " How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, 

When fond Becollection presents them to view.'''' 

4. " These lofty trees wave not less proudly 

That their Ancestors moulder beneath them." 



(35.) 



RECAPITULATION OF DIAGRAMS. 

1. For Sentences.— Principal Elements. 



A ( John T pi a ys ^ .. .a Simple Sentence— Intransitive. 
3 f Master jT taught j' school ^ a Simple Sentence— Transitive. 



n \ TnrV r — rgr'\ a Compound Sentence— Intransitive. 



"iin^s ) ^ )ne Subject — two Predicates. 



(We alth 
D _JJJ-L- 



eign J a Compound Sentence— Intransitive, 



^ ( ^ ^Y t> t, ia \- m T\ > .a Compounds 
E ( We 1 beheId p gFB TwoOlgectB. 



Two Subjects — one Predicate. 

Sentence— Transitive. 



50 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART L 



C urn ~Y ~~*Y \ .a Compo 

Y ( or) { can cal1 breath J Two Subj 



Compound Sentence— Transitive. 

" "ects. 



G 



i 



promote 



XZ 



3 -a Compound Sentence— Transitive. 
— Two Subjects — two Objects. 



K 
L 
M 



f \ " 


l 


life J 


f State ) \ > 


I J : 






r y x 


J 


Spirit \ \ ) 11 


V J J 


( 


3 






C X J 


> 


man 


( ) I .) 


C X J 




[ x ■ 


( 


J 


i ) I ) ( ) 


( I 


( 


~) 




f T 


( 


1 


He ( ) 






I k 








f 1 




.bruits ( ) 




I k 


( 


3 



,a Compound Sentence — Transitive. 
Two Predicates. 



.a Compound Sentence — Transitive. 
Two Predicates — two Objects. 

.a Compound Sentence — Transitive. - 
Two Subjects— two Predicates. 

.a Compound Sentence— Transitive. 
J Two Subjects, two Predicates, two 
Objects. 



a Compound Sentence— Mixed. 

Two Predicates — one Object. 

a Compound Sentence — Mixed. 

Two Predicates— one Object. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

the Principal Sentence. 



N ( He Y loveth ^ soul ) TmnsiuVe-Simple 
n P-S X j 

^ ( ~ "V"^ ; — v i \ the Principal Sentence. 

O I He j j will makej ^ apology j Transitive-Simple. 



Auxiliary Sentence — Adjective. 
Tran sitive— Simple. 



O 



Auxiliary Sentence — Adverbial. 

Transitive — Simple. 



] I — ™ — -TV \f > \ • - a Sentence having a Phrase for its 

Jr-p v a J jqiscourage^ youth J Subject. 



Q C J ° hD X^ grctted T\ having done Y "iT^) 



. . a Sentence having 
a Phrase for its 
Object. 



E 



(__he_J[ ^s wrong ^)J[ was evident J 



.a Sentence having 
a Sentence for its 
Subject. 



St T" "V V7 t ~"Y ^ > ™™, ^ v • • a Sentence having 
f John 1 says H he | lbB( ! n y' / % a Sentence for it? 
v ^— ^ Object. 



Leader — Subsequent. 
T |ofj f Java ^ 



2. Phraoes. — Principal Elements. 



a Prepositional Phrase — Simple. 

One Leader— one Subsequent. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 



51 



m n I f peace ) 

T 2 In ^ _.^ ; 

I X sa fety ) 



a Prepositional Phrase— Compound. 

One Leader— two Subsequents. 



I I ., ^ 

T ^ Gaining J^ time ~) 

jj 9 ^ stuciyinj^y \ .a Participial Phrase — Compour 
^ ^ i y c it ) 1 lessons Two Leaders — one Subsequent. 

V reciting J v, / 



a Participial Phrase— Simple, Transitive. 

One Leader — one Subsequent. 

.a Participial Phrase — Compound, Transitive. 



Y I'-l N 

Y (To! dream ) 



.. ..an Infinitive Phrase— Simple, Intransitive. 



V2 



ItsCjEl^C 



x C story ) 

U>eing done) 



.an Infinitive Phrase— Transitive. 



an Independent Phrase— Intransitive. 

One Leader— one Adjunct. [See p. ~ ] 



X2 



a 



Foat 



( jiaving lef fy wharf ) 
Of I l ^gaining^flTf 

Z (on [ bed ~) 



an Independent Phrase— Transitive. 

[See p. 25.] 



COMPLEX PHRASES. 

..a Prepositional Phrase having a Participial 
Phrase as its Subsequent. 



..a Prepositional Phrase having another Pre- 
positional Phrase as Adjunct of its Subse- 

f N quent. 

(rf^ sea-nowersj Principal Phrase Prepositional. 

I t - — Auxiliary Phrase Prepositional. 

I Sa y m g jfC—^JC ) ..a Participial Phrase, having a Sentence for 



its Subsequent. 



Rem. — 1. The above Diagrams are adapted to the Principal Ele- 
ments of a Sentence and of Phrases. In the exercises which follow, 
these Elements are variously modified by Adjunct Words, Phrases, 
and Sentences. 

2. The whole Predicate — consisting of one, two, three, four, and 
sometimes five words, is placed in one Diagram — as exhibited on 
the following pages. 

Questions for Review. 

PAGE 

41. Why are Sentences classified ?. . . , See Remark. 

How are Sentences classified ? See Principle. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART I. 

PAGE 

What is an Intransitive Sentence f See Def. 45. 

May Intransitive Sentences be either Simple or 
Compound ? See Obs. 

Make Intransitive Sentences Simple. 

Make " " Compound. 

42. What is a Transitive Sentence f See Def. 46. 

Make Transitive Sentences Simple. 

Make " " Compound. 

What is a Simple Sentence ? See Def. 47. 

Make Simple Sentences Intransitive. 

Make " " Transitive. 

What is a Compound Sentence f See Def. 48. 

Make Compound Sentences Intransitive. 

Make " " Transitive. 

43. What are Clauses of a Sentence ? See Def. 49. 

What Elements in a Sentence may be com- 
pounded? See Obs. (1-7). 

Make Sentences having Compound Subjects. 

Make " " " Predicates. 

Make " " " Objects. 

44. How numerous may be the Clauses of a Sentence ? - 

What is a Mixed Sentence f See Def. 50. 

Make Mixed Sentences — 1st Clause Transitive. 

Make " " 2d Clause Transitive. 
What is a Principal Sentence f See Def. 51. 

45. What is an Auxiliary Sentence f See Def. 52. 

46. What is a Complex Sentence t See Def. 53. 

Make Complex Sentences. 
What are the offices of Auxiliary Sentences ? . . . . See Kem. 
By their offices, how are Auxiliary Sentences dis- 
tinguished? See Prin. 

47. What is a Substantive Sentence f See Def. 54. 

Make a Substantive Sentence that shall be 

the Subject of a Principal Sentence. 
Make a Substantive Sentence that shall be 

the Object of a Principal Sentence. 

48. What is an Adjective Sentence f See Def. 55. 

Make Adjective Sentences. 

49. What is an Adverbial Sentence t See Def. 56. 

Make Adverbial Sentences. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 53 



EXERCISES m ANALYSIS. 

Rem. — 1. In the following Exercises will be found Sentences of 
every grade — from the most simple to the most complex. The 
Teacher will find exercise for his judgment and discretion in as- 
signing the Sentences to his Pupils (for analysis) according to their 
several capacities. - 

2. The Teacher will find it interesting and profitable to his Pu- 
pils, to assign to each at least one Sentence, to be placed in its ap- 
propriate Diagram — drawn on the blackboard ex tempore, or on 
paper by appointment at a previous recitation. 

Simple Sentences.— Intransitive. 

1. " Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight" 

(36.) 

C landscape J, fades J 

( the J glimmering )(Now) Lnj gight ^ 

A Simple Sentence — Intransitive See Def. 

ANALYSIS. 

Principal j The Subject "Landscape." 

Elements. ( The Predicate " Fades." 

(nsn o *'• , j"The" a Word. 

Adjunct ] Of the Subject, ( « Glimmering >, aWorcL 

Elements. J Of the Predi- ( " Now" a "Word. 

. cate, { " On the sight". . a Phrase. 

Rem. — Let the Pupils thus analyze and place in a simMar Dia- 
gram the following 

Additional Sentences. 

2. The studious pupil seldom fails in his recitation. 

3. The arrogant pedant was quickly banished from the company. 

4. Such bright examples seldom fail, ultimately, to please. 

5. That bright meteor fashed brilliantly athwart the heavens. 

6. The young aspirant never succeeded in his effort. 

7. Our brightest students are also foremost in their sports. 

Ggf" Let each Pupil make a Sentence adapted to the same 
Diagram. 



54 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART I. 



(37.) 



Simple Sentences.— Transitive. 
1. " The king of shadows loves a shining mark.' 1 



c 



king 



The J [of j shadowa ") 



X loves X 



mark 



BU 



shining 



A Simple Sentence — Transitive See Def. 44. 

ANALYSIS. 

Principal [ The 8wl 3 ect • " King." 

Elements. 1 The Pre ^^ " Loves." 

I The Object "Mark." 

J J ( " Of shadows/' a Phrase. 

0/ the Predicate, 



Adjunct 
Elements. < 



Of the Object \"j£:\ 

J J ("Shining.... 



a Word, 
a Word. 



Elements. 
The, 
King, 

Of shadows, 
Loves, 
A, 

Shining, 
Mark, 



to tell what " king." 

to tell who " loves mark." 

to tell ichat " king." 

to tell what the king does. 

to tell what " mark." 

to tell what " mark." 

to tell w7i<atf the king " loves." 



Class. 

Adjunct of " king." 

Subject of" loves." 

Adjunct of "king." 

Predicate of" king." 

Adjunct of " mark." 

Adjunct of "mark." 

Object of "loves." 

Other Examples applicable to the same Diagram. 

2. The science of geology illustrates many astonishing/acfe. 

3. A love for study secures our intellectual improvement. 

4. The habit of intemperance produces much lasting misery. 

5. A desire for improvement should possess all our hearts. 

6. The use of tobacco degrades many good men. 

7. A house on fire presents a melancholy spectacle. 

8. A ma?z of refinement wi# atfo^tf no disgusting habits. 

HP Let each Pupil make a Sentence for the same Diagram. 

m~ Let the Pupil read only the Principal Elements of the above 
Sentences. Thus, 

" Science illustrates facts" 
"Love secures improvement" 

Then let him add the Adjunct to each word. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 



55 



Compound Sentences.— Intransitive. 
1. "Dissolute places and loose companions slwuld be avoided by 
tlw young." 



(38.) f P^ces 



C companions j ^ 
V loose J 



Un youth, \ 



ANALYSIS. 



Adjuncts. 



Of the 1st Subject 
Of the 2d Subject 
Of the Predicate 



Places/ 5 

Companions." 
Should be avoided." 



_ (The 1st Subject. 

Principal ) Th u s? jj ecL 

Elements, | ThePredic J ate ^ 

."Dissolute." 

." Loose." 

. " By the young." 

2. The Teachers and the Pupils have been complimented by the Committee, 

3. His fortune and his talents should be devoted to that cause. 

4. " The dipping paddle echoes far, 

And flashes in the moonlight gleam. 1 ' 



(39.) 




echoes j 


C&)^ far^y 


flashes 


) 



Gliam 



Principal 
Elements. 



(thej l moonlight _ 



AKALYSIS. 

The Subject "Paddle." 

The 1st Predicate " Echoes." 

The 2d Predicate " Flashes." 

' .,, ' ,: , ("The" a Word. 

Of the Subject -j u Dipping ^ _ . a Word . 

Adjuncts. ^ Of the 1st Predicate. . " Far" a Word. 

I r\* n o 7 d 7 • / i " I n tlie moonlight 
y Of the 2d Predicate j gleam »_ a Phrase. 

5. Our youngest Pupil studies well, and recites with his usual precision. 



56 



ENGLISH GBAMMAB—PART I. 



Compound Sentences.— Transitive. 

1. " Can storied urn or animated bust 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath?" 



(40.) 



<c 



storied 



Qm 



7&_ 



bust 
animated""}" 



Can call 



breath 



x 

I Back J ^o j-^^r) l^JL±fs£ 



mansion 



? 



Principal 
Elements. 



Adjunct 
Elements. * 



ANALYSIS. 

(1st Subject "Urn." 

26? /S^jW "Bust. 

The Predicate "Can call." 

^ The Object " Breath." 

f Of the Is* Subject " Storied." 

Of the 2d Subject "Animated." 

( " Back " 
Of the Predicate j « To it g mans i on » 

( " The " 
Of the Object "Fleeting." 



Additional Sentences, adapted to the same Diagram. 

2. What boy or what girl can not place the next Sentence in this Diagram ? 

3. Never, since the Creation, has the eye or the heart hailed such beautiful 

forms. 

4. The mother and the daughter quickly drove the daring burglar from the 

house. 

Let the Pupils make other Sentences for the same Diagram. 

Additional Sentences, 
In which the Principal Elements are similar. 

5. " Hill and valley echo back their songs." 

6. " Then Strife and Faction rule the day," 

7. " And Pride and Avarice throng the way." 

8. " Loose Revelry and Riot bold, 
In freighted streets their orgies hold." 

9. " Illuminated reason and regulated liberty shall once more exhibit 
man in the image of his Maker." 

10. " The hunter's trail and the dark encampments startled the wild 
beasts from their lairs." 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 57 

1. " In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth" 



(41.) 



God 



created 



Ji 



heaven j 
(&) \ the J 



earth 



In [ beginnlnj"") I tb ~ 
\thej 



? 



Principal 
Elements. 



analysis. 

The Subject " God." 

The Predicate " Created/' 

mi n-u - + S" Heaven" and 

^^ Objects j«Earth.» 

f Of the Subject 



Adjunct ! Of the Predicate "In the beginning." 

Elements. | Of the 1st Object " The." 

[ Of the 2d Object " The." 



Elements. 
" In th,e begin- i 
ning," | 

" God," 

| Created," 
" The," 
" Heaven," 
" And," 
"The," 
"Earth" 



Construction. 

Office. 

tells when God " created." 

tells who " created heaven 

and earth." 
tells what " God" did. 
tells what " heaven." 
tells what "God created." 
joins "heaven and earth." 
tells what " earth" 
tells what " God created." 



Adjunct of " created." 
[ Subject of " created." 



Predicate of "God." 
Adjunct of " heaven." 
Object of" created." 
Conjunction. 
Adjunct of " earth." 
Object of" created." 



Additional Sentences, for the same Diagram. 

2. William loves his study and his play with equal attachment. 

3. God, in the creation, has displayed his wisdom and his power. 

4. Men gather the tares and the wheat with equal care. 

5. We, at all times, seek our honor and our happiness. 

6. Students reqnire of the teacher much instruction and some patience, 

7. He educated his daughter and his son at great expense. 



GUP Let the Pupils make other Sentences for the same Diagram. 



58 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART L 



1. " The spirit of beauty unfurls her light, 
And wheels her course in a joyous flight" 

(42.) 




( aj I joyous 



Principal 
Elements. 



adjuncts. < 



ANALYSIS, 
f The Subject " Spirit" 

TfcB— s::£S" t,mdl 

!.*•<** iJg&Pf 

/J« ^-j ("The" a Word. 

0/«fo &fe«rf } „ of beauty" a Phrase. 

0/ ^6 1st Predicate. . 



Of the 2d Predicate. ." In a joyous flight". . .a Phrase. 

0/ *fo 1st Object " Her" a Word. 

Of the 2d Object " Her" a Word. 

Additional Sentences, /or the same Diagram. 

2. The teacher of grammar examined her class, and presented the medal to the 

best scholar. 

3. The queen of night unveiled her face, 

And silvered the heavens with her mild beams. 

4. The king of day dispelled those beams, 
And lighted the earth with his golden rays. 

$W* Let each Pupil make a Sentence for the same Diagram. 

Additional Sentences— The Adjuncts vary. 

5. " With louder plaints the mother spake her woes, 

And blessed the cot where every pleasure rose." 

6. " Slowly and sadly they climb the distant mountain, and read their doom in 

the setting sun." 

7. "An aversion to effort paralyzes every noble desire, and defeats every attempt 

at advancement." 

8. " Secrecy keeps the key of prudence, and unlocks the sanctuary of wisdom." 

9. " Two hundred years have changed the character of a great continent, and 

blotted forever from its face a whole peculiar people." 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 



59 



Compound Sentences— Mixed. 
1. " Time slept on flowers and lent Ms glass to 7wpe" 




slept 



D 



Time 



Ipnj flowers) 



lent 



X. 



H Hope ) ( bis ) 



ANALYSIS. 



r The Subject " Time." 

^ i " Slept" . . Intransitive. 

**™ C1TAL \ The Predicates...] and 

[«■ Lent".. Transitive. 

I' 



Elements. 



The Object " Glass." 

" Of the Subject. 



Adjunct 
Elements. 



Of the 1st Predicate . " On flowers" . a Phrase. 
Of the 2d Predicate . " To hope" ... a Phrase. 
Of the Object "His" a Word. 

Additional Sentences— adapted to the same Diagram. 

2. We sigh for change, and spend our lives for naught. 

3. William goes to school, and pursues his study with zeal. 

4. James stays at home, and spends his time at play. 

5. We shall pass from earth, and yield our homes to others. 

6. Fruits ripen in Autumn, and yield us rich repasts. 

" Wlio can observe the careful ant 
And not provide for future wantf 



Who 



can observe 


_JC ant ) 


(and) 


UheJ( careful J 


provide 
(no^^forj- 


_J 

want ) 




[ future ) 



ANOTHER METHOD OF ANALYSIS. 

The Predicates. ' The Object. 

f can observe Ant, 

and the, careful 

provide 

not, for want 
future 
Let each Pupil make a Sentence adapted to the same Diagrams. 



The Subject. 



Who 



60 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART L 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

The Auxiliary Sentence — Substantive. 
1. " That all men are created equal, is a self-evident truth." 



( That ) 
[ men J ^ are " created ) 

^equal ) / 




ANALYSIS. 



Principal . 

Elements. * 



The Subject. . ■ 
The Predicate 



\ "That all men) 

( are created > a Sentence, 

equal" ) 

j"Is ) a Verb and 

• ("Truth" \ a Noun. 



Adjunct { Of the Subject 



Elements. \ Of the Predicate j 4df-evident." 

Analysis of the Auxiliary Sentence. 

Principal ( The Subject " Men." 

Elements. ( The Predicate "Are created." 



Adjunct 
Elements. 



Of the Predicate. . . " All" .... a Word. 

Of the Subject [with] "equal" [rights]. 



Additional Sentences, adapted to the same Diagram. 

2. That those boys were capable of such deception, was not fully believed. 

3. That our pupils are addicted to such habits, is a lamentable truth. 

4. That long lessons are agreeable to this class, is not very obvious. 

5. That our teacher is master of his profession, is always fully acknowledged. 

6. That such tasks should be imposed on small scholars, is an unusual thing. 

GUT Let each Pupil make a Sentence adapted to the same 
Diagram. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 61 

2. " But Brutus says he was ambitious" 
( But") 



( Brutus Jf says T ( he j^was { amhitious ^) 

ANALYSIS. 

f The Subject. . .."Brutus" a Word. 

Principal J The Predicate, ."says". . a Word. 

Elements. Uu nz-w \ " He was am- ) a 

I The Object. . . j bitious". . j a Sentence - 

Adjunct Elements. — None. 



Let each Pupil make and analyze a Sentence adapted to 
the same Diagram. 

1. " That good men often commit faults, can not be denied." 



C_men_ r" commit y ~f^jT^)] ( 



ANALYSIS. 



ESSE \ ^ SUhJeCt - ■ \ " fe b n a co g mmit ffi£ \ • Sentence. 
Elements. ) m. «,. , l r. * - ., .„ ^ ' 



The Predicate Can not be denied 

a ~™™ mfl i W the Subject " Not any." 

Adjuncts. j ^f the dedicate "Not." 

Additional Complex Sentences. 
Sentence Subjects. 

2. " /ccm /zctf, has never accomplished any thing." 

3. " I will try, has done wonders." 

4. " That we may be in error is quite possible." 

Sentence Objects. 

5. " ' Will you walk into my parlor ?' said a spider to a fly." 

6. " He knew not that the chieftain lay unconscious of his son." 

7. "Then Agrippa said unto Paul, 'Almost thou persuadest me to be a 
Christian.'' " 

8. ;i A celebrated writer says, ■ Take care of the minutes, and the hours will 
take care of themselves.' " 



62 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART L 



The Auxiliary Sentences— Adjective. 
1. "But they that fight for freedom undertake 

The noblest cause mankind can have at stake." 



( But ) 




A Complex Sentence. 
Analysis of the Principal Sentence. 

Principal j The Subject -y^f ■■■■■■ } 
The Predicate. . « Undertake" 



Elements. 



Adjunct 
Elements. 



The Object ...." Cause" 
Of the Subject . 
Of the Predicate 



Simple 

Transitive. 



forfreedom"[ aSentence ' 



f"The" a Word. 

| " Noblest" a Word. 

s Of the Object. \ "[That] man- ) 

kind can have > a Sentence. 
^ at stake" ) 

Analysis of the first Auxiliary Sentence. 

Principal j The Subject " That." 

Elements. ( The Predicate " Fight." 

Adjunct j Of the Subject 

Elements. \ Of the Predicate . ." For freedom" . a Phrase. 

Analysis of the second Auxiliary Sentence. 

Principal ( The Sui J ed " Mankind." 

"Rtpm^xttq \ Tlie Predicate " Can have." 

elements, j The 0J)jed [That] undergt00d# 

Adjunct ( °f t]ie Subject 

Ft F^FATTq \ °f ^ ie Predicate . . " At stake" a Phrase. 

Elements, j 0fthe 0iject __ 

Thus analyze and place in the same Diagram the following 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 63 

Additional Sentences. 

2. And students who love to study merit the highest honors which teachers can 

give them. 

3. And actions which were founded in justice, produced the good results which 

we had in view. 

4. " But such as seek for truth shall find the richest boon which God to man can 

give. ,, 

5. " And I who bleed for thee, 6. But he who wins at last, 

Shall claim the brightest gift Shall love the very toils 

Which thou canst yield to me." Which fortune round him cast. 

(H^ 33 Let each Pupil make a Sentence adapted to the same 
Diagram. 

" He that by usury and unjust gain increaseth Ids substance, shall 
gather it for him that will pity the poor" 

§W Let the Pupil place this Sentence in the subjoined Diagram. 



" ( X~ . . I ) 



<_X 



^ 



X 



G 



T—T 



L 



3 



" Our proper bliss depends on what we blame" 

f bliss jT depends J 

(J Our ^ proper ) 



A Complex Sentence.— The Auxiliary qualifies a Phrase. 
Elements. Offices. 

" Our," : Adjunct of" bliss.'' 

" Proper," Adjunct of " bliss." 

" Bliss," Subject of " depends." 

" Depends," Predicate of " bliss." 

" On what we blame," Adjunct of " depends." 

m What » j [That] .Object of " on." 

' ( [Which] Object of "blame." 

u We," Subject of " blame." 

" Blame," Predicate of " we." 



64 



ENGLISH GBAMMAB—PABT L 



(49.) 



Auxiliary Sentences— Adverbial. 

1. " And when Us yellow luster smiled 
O'er mountains yet untrod, 
Each mother held aloft her child, 
To bless the bow of GodP 



( And ) 




Analysis of the Principal Sentence. 

FIRST MODEL. 

r>* T ™™ . T (The Subject " Mother" . . ) Q . , 

5 /™™ \ The Predicate. . ."Held". . . . f T Sim lJ e 
Elements. | The 0ijed u ChM „ _ J Transitive. 

Of the Subject . . " Each" a Word. 

f "Aloft" a Word. 

"When its yellow "" 
luster smiled o'er 
mountains yet 

untrod" 

"To bless the bow 

of God" 

I Of the Object. . . ."Her" a Word 



Adjunct 
Elements. 



Of the 
i Predicate, 



a Sentence 
*" (Adverbial). 

a Phrase. 



SECOND MODEL. 

Elements. 

"And" Introduces the Principal Sentence. 

" When its yellow luster smiled 
O'er mountains yet untrod" 

" Each" Adjunct of " mother." 

" Mother" ,... .Subject of " held." 



^ i . . . . .-. . .Adjunct of " held." 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 65 

\ n e \&» Predicate of " mother." 

j Aloft » ............. Adjunct of " held." 

I Her" ............. Adjunct of " child." 

;t child'"' \\ Object of " held." 

j To bless "the bow of God" Adjunct of " held." 

Analysis of the Auxiliary Sentence. 

I -^hen" Introduces the Auxiliary Sentence, 

\ j ts » Adjunct of " luster." 

u yellow'''. "."".".". Adjunct of " luster." 

ti L us ter" Subject of " smiled." 

u g m |ied" '. Predicate of " luster." 

« O'er mountain's yet untrod" Adjunct of " smiled." 

Analysis of the Adjunct Phrases. 

« To" Introduces the Phrase— connects " bless" with " held." 

" Bless". '. • Object of " to." 

I The" . . Adjunct of " bow." 

I Bow"' Object of " bless." 

I Of God'' Adjunct of " bow." 

« Of" Introduces the Pfirase— connects " God" with " bow." 

H God"'.'.'.'.'. 0b J ect of " of *" 

I > er » Introduces the Phrase— connects " mountains" with 

" smiled." 

"Mountains" Object of " o'er." 

I y et >i Adjunct of " untrod. 

I Untrod"' Adjunct of u mountains." 

^T 5 Thus analyze the following Additional Examples. 

2. " Wherefore is there a price in the hand of a fool to get wisdom, seeing he 

hath no heart to it." 

3. " Yet do I feel my soul recoil within me, 

As I contemplate the dim gulf of death." 

4. " If we have whispered truth, 

Whisper no longer." 

5. " Speak as the tempest does, 

Sterner and stronger." 

6. " The hoary head is a crown of glory, if it be found in the way of 

righteousness." 

7. " Their advancement in life and in education was such that each ought to 

have been a gentleman." 



66 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART I. 



EXAMPLES 

Of Substantive, Adjectiye, and Adverbial Sentences. 
(50.) 




^ 



WT Let the Pupil name the Sentence below adapted to this Dia- 
gram, and place it in an exact copy, written on the blackboard. 



1. "If you would know the deeds of him who chews, 

Enter the house of God, and see the pews." 

2. " The man that dares traduce because he can 

With safety to himself, is not a man.' 1 

3. " And, as I passed by, I heard the complaints of the laborers who had 

reaped down his fields, and the cries of the poor whose covering he 
had taken away. 1 ' 

4. " The time must come when all will have been said that can be said to 

exalt the character of any individual of our race." 

5. " Mysterious are his ways, whose power 

Brings forth that unexpected hour, 
When minds that never met before, 
Shall meet, unite, and part no more.'" 

6. " My heart is awed within me when I think 

Of the great miracle that still goes on 
In silence round me." 

7. " When we consider carefully what appeals to our minds, and exercise 

upon it our own reason— taking into respectful consideration what 
others say upon it— and then come to a conclusion of our own vve 
act as intelligent beings." 

8. " Before we passionately desire what another enjoys, we should examine 

into the happiness of its possessor." 

9. "With what loud applause didst thou beat heaven with blessing Bolino-. 

broke, before he was what thou wouldst have him be ?" 

1M~ Teachers and Pupils will find additional Sentences for Exer- 
cises in Analysis in the Appendix. 



PART II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 



Remark 1. — In Part I. we have considered — 

1. The Structure of Sentences and of Phrases; 

2. The Elements which compose a Sentence or a Phrase ; 

3. The Classification of Sentences and of Phrases ; 

4. The Analysis of Sentences — Proximate and Ultimate. 

Rem. 2. — In our progress through Part I. we have seen — 

1. That the Proximate Analysis of a Sentence consists in re 

solving it into its immediate Constituent Elements, and that 
these may be Words, Phrases, or Auxiliary Sentences. 

2. That the Ultimate Analysis of a Sentence consists in re- 

ducing its Proximate Elements to the TVords which 
compose them. 

Rem. 3. — We have next to consider the history of Words — con- 
sidered as ultimate Elements of Sentences — including, 



1. Their Formation, 

2. Their Classification, 



3. Their Modification, 

4. Their Relation, and 



5. Their Collocation. 



Principle. — The Science of Lan- 
guage embraces 



Orthoepy, 
Orthography,* 
< Etymology, 
Syntax, and 
L JProsocly. 



Def. 57. — Orthoepy treats of the Sounds of letters 
and of Words. 



* It accords "best with our plan, first to discuss the Classes, the Modifications, 
and the delations of Words, before analyzing the Words and examining their 
Elements. Hence Orthography is placed in the Appendix. 



68 ENGLISH GBAMMAR—PART II. 

Def. 58.— Orthography treats of the Structure and 
Form of Words. 

Def. 59.— Etymology treats of the Classification and 
Modification of Words. 

Def. 60.— Syntax treats of the Relation and mutual 
Dependence of Words. 

Def. 61.— Prosody treats of the Arrangement and 
Utterance of Words. 

Classification and Modification of Words. 

Words are distinguished i b ? their Forms and 

( by their Uses. 

1. The Forms of Words. 

Prist.— By their forms, Words are distinguished as, 

Radical or Derivative, 
Simple or Compound. 

Def. 62.— A Radical Word is a Word that does not 
derive its original from another Word in the same lan- 
guage, 

Examples.— Sun— cloud— rose— friend— chief— swift— just— sell. 

Def. 63.— A Derivative Word is a Word derived 
from a Eadical, by prefixing or adding one or more let-] 
ters to it. 

Examples.— Sunny— swiftly— cloudy— sinful— selling— unconscious— roseate 
—friendly— justify— chieftain. 

Obs.— A Word that is Eadical in the English language, may be j 
a Derivative in the language from which it comes. 

Examples.— Conscience— optics— algebra— philosophy— signify. 

D EF . 64— A Simple Word is a Word that is used 
separately from another Word. 

Examples.— Have— brightly— freedom— parlor— music— study— times- 
patience— loved— cottage— peace— cold. 



WORDS-CLASSES. 69 

p EF . 65.— A Compound Word is a Word that is 
made of two or more Words combined. 

Examples.— Star-light— household-words— rose-bud— steam-engine— pencil- 
cage— nevertheless— moonbeam— rail-road. 

Obs.— The parts of a Compound Word are printed as one Word 
without space between them, or they are joined by a short hori- 
zontal line (-) called a hyphen. 

Examples {without the hyphen).— Overlay— underwrite— withstand— some- 
times — nevertheless. 
" (with the hyphen).— Hour-glass— warm-hearted— ink-stand— pen- 

holder. 

Pkik.— The Parts of a Compound j the Basis and 
Word are (the Adjunct. 

D EF# e6.— The Basis of a Compound Word is the 
Principal Element in the Word. 

Examples.— Race-horse— horse-race— ho\xx-glass—sergeant-at-arms— father-in- 
law— aid-de-camo. 

D EF . 67.— The Adjunct of a Compound Word is the 
part that limits or modifies the Basis. 

Examples.— Race-horse— horse-race— hour-glass — jack-©' '-lantern — father-in- 
law— aid-de-camp. 

Obs. 1.— The Adjunct of a Word may be one Word or a Phrase. 

Examples.— One Word.— Man-stealer -race-horse— book-maker. 

A Phrase.— Yather-in-law— aid-de-camp— will-o' -the-wisp. 
Obs. 2.— Derivative and Compound Words have this distinction, 

viz. : 

Compound Words consist of two or more complete Words; whereas, 
Derivative Words consist of one Word with Letters ox Particles pre- 
fixed or attached. 

( Prefixes and 
These Particles are called ^ } Suffixes. 

D EF# 68.— A Prefix is one or more letters placed 
before a Kadical, to form a Derivative Word. 

Examples.— inform— degrade— overlook— undertake— involve— elect— absolve 
—perfect. 



70 



ENGLISH GBAMMAB—PABT II. 



Def. 69. — A Suffix is one or more letters added to a 
Word, to make it Derivative. 

Examples. — Yoiming — graded— honied/ — goodness. 
Rem. — Words may iiave more than one Prefix or Suffix. Hence, 



Prln". — Prefixes and Suffixes are dis- j Simple or 
tinguished as ( Compound. 



Examples of Simple 



Ab solve, 
Bis solve, 
Be solve, 
Be form, 
In form, 
TJni form. 



Prefixes. 

Com pose, 
Be pose, 
Be pose, 
Be take, 
Over take. 
Under take. 



Suffixes. 






Form ing y 
Form ation, 
Danger ous, 
Coin age. 
Good ness, 
Bigot ry, 



Tak en, 
Verb ose, 
Rude ly, 
HopejfW, 
Con sular, 
Lamb kin. 



Compound 



Prefixes. 
Be con struct, 
Mis con ceive, 
In co herent, 
Un pre tending, 
Ir re vocable, 
Im per forated. 



Suffixes. 
Lone li ness. 
Might i ly, 
Fear less ness, 
Eight fully, 
Form a tion, 
Modi fi cation. 



Be due ing, 
Bis solv edy 
Con form able, 
Re con cil i a tion, 
Tran sub stan ti a tion 
In dis sol u ble, 



Prefixes and Suffixes. 

Ab negat ion, 
Con fine, ment, 
Sub stan tial, 
Un con -dition ally, 
Non con form ist, 
Con form abil ity. 



Pri^. — The Radicals of Derivative j Separable or 
Words are | Inseparable. 

Def. 70.— A Separable Radical constitutes a per- 
fect Word, without its Prefixes or Suffixes. 



WORDS— CLASSES. 



71 



Examples. 
Radical. Derivative. Radical. 

C Con form, 
De form, 

Form ^ In form, Join . . . 

Per form, 
Re form. 



Derivative. 

^Adjoin, 
Conjoin, 
Disjoin, 
Enjoin, 

^Rejoin. 



Def. 71. — An Inseparable Radical is not used as a 
distinct Word in the language, without the aid of its 
Prefixes or Suffixes. 

Examples. 

Radical. 



Radical. 



Lect. 



Derivative. 

f Col lect, 
E lect, 
Se lect, 

■{ De lect able, 
Re col lect, 
Re col lect ion, 
Un se lect ed. 



Vert. . . . 



Derivative. 
A vert, 
Ad vert, 
Con vert, 
Di vert, 
E vert ion, 
In vers ion, 
^ Uni vers al. 



Obs. — The office of Prefixes is to modify the signification of the 
Radical — that of Suffixes, to determine the " part of speech." 

Note.— For an extended list of Prefixes and Suffixes, see " Derivation of 
Woi'ds" in Sanders 1 Analysis of Wokds. 

EXERCISES. 

Let the Pupil tell which of the following Words are Simple, 
which are Compound, which are Primitive, and which are Deriva- 
tive. 

Ardent, [ Ardently, 

Beauty, Beautiful, 

Courage, Courageous, 

Duty, Dutiful, 

Eager, Eagerness, 

Fair, Unfairness, 

Good, I Goodly, 



Jack-o'-lantern, 

World-renowned, 

Race-horse, 

Horse-race, 

Life-giving, 

Fair-haired youth, 

Conformable. 



1 How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, 
When fond Recollection presents them to view, — 
The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wildwood, 
And every loved spot that my infancy knew I" 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- PART II. 

Let the Pupil analyze the Derivative and the Compound Words 
according to the following 

Model. 

1. " Conformable" a Derivative Word. 

ANALYSIS. 

The Prefix « con » 

The Radical « form " 

The Suffix # « able " 

2. " Kace-horse" a Compound Word. 

ANALYSIS. 

The Basis « horse " 

The Adjunct « race." 

3. " Horse-race" a Compound Word. 

ANALYSIS. 

The ifrms « race." 

The Adjunct « horse." 

Questions for Review 

PAGE 

67. What are the subjects discussed in Part II. ? . . . . See Remark 

What is Proximate Analysis of Sentences ? See Rem 2 ' 

What is Ultimate Analysis of Sentences ? " « 

The Science of Language embraces what parts ? ." \ See Prin 

68. What is Orthography? See Def. 58. 

Wha is Etymology? See Def. 59. 

Wha is Syntax? See Def. 60. 

What is Prosody? See Def. 61 

Words are distinguished by what different bases ? See Prin 
By their forms, how are Words distinguished ? " 

What is a Radical Word ? Give Examples . . \ \ \ See Def 62 
What is a Derivative Word ? Give Examples . . See Def 63* 

ro w m ! ? a ^, imple W ° rd ' Give Exai *ples See Def 64. 

69. What is a Compound Word ? Give Examples. . See Def 65 
What are the different Parts of a Compound Word ? See Prin 
What is the Basis of a Compound Word ? See Def. Q6. 



WORDS-CLASSES. 73 

PAGE 

What is the Adjunct of a Compound Word ? See Def. 67. 

The Adjunct Element of a Compound Word may 
consist of what ? See Obs. 1. 

69. How are Compound distinguished from Derivative 

Words? See Obs. 2. 

Make a Compound Word ; — a Derivative Word. 
What distinct Elements may be in a Derivative Word ? 
What is a Prefix ? Give Examples See Def. 68. 

70. What is a Suffix ? Give Examples See Def. 69. 

How many sorts of Prefixes ? Of Suffixes ? See Prin. 

What distinctions of Eadicals in Derivative Words ? Prin. 
What is a Separable Radical? Give Examples. .See Def. 70. 

71. What is an Inseparable Radical? Give Examples. Def. 71. 

II. The Uses of Words. 

Prin. — By their uses, Words are distinguished as 

1. Nouns, ) 

2. Pronouns, > Principal Elements in Sentences. 

3. Verbs, ) 

6. Prepositions, \ 

7. Conjunctions, ( Attendant Elements. 

8. Exclamations, ( 

9. Words of Euphony,) 

Obs.— These nine classes of words are called " the Parts of 
Speech ;" for in these classes are included all the words of the Eng- 
lish language. 

Def. 72. — A Noun is a Word used as the Name of a 
being, of a place, or of a thing. 

Examples.—' 1 The king of shadows loves a shining mark." 

Obs. 1. — Nouns are names of 

1. Material things, as — Man — book — house — apples. 

2. Ideas or things not material, as — Mind — hope — desire — aversion 
— remorse— joy — imagination — veracity. 

Obs. 2. — Let the Pupil be careful here to distinguish a name from 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II 

the tiling named ; and remember that the name is the Noun. Thus, 
a house is a thing — the name of that thing is a Noun. 

Obs. 8. — The term Substantive is used in grammar to indicate a 
Noun, a Pronoun, or a Phrase or a Sentence having the Syntax of 
a Noun. 

Classification of Nouns. 

Kem. — Some Nouns are appropriated to individual persons or 
places, or to things personified ; others are general in their appli- 
cation, being used to designate classes or sorts. Hence, 

Pein.— Nouns are distinguished as -J c l^f^ j^ L 

Def. 73. — A Proper Noun is a name appropriated 
to an individual person or place, or to a thing personified. 

Examines.— William— Boston— Hudson— Oregon. 

" And old Experience learns too late 
That all is vanity below." 

Def. 74. — A Common Noun is a name used to desig- 
nate one or more of a class or sort of beings or things. 

Examples. — Man — book — conscience — feeling— landscape. 

" Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight." 

Rem. — Some Common Nouns are the names of qualities. 

Def. 75. — An Abstract Noun is the name of a 
quality of a thing, and not of the substance. 

Examples. — Goodness — meekness — impracticability. 

Def. 76. — A Collective Noun is a Noun that in its 
Singular form indicates more than one. 

Examples.— Committee— assembly— army— tribe— clan— multitude. 
" The village master taught his little school." 

Def. 77.— A Verbal Noun is a Noun derived from a 
Verb ; being inform a Participle— in office, a Substantive. 

Examples.— Beginning— gatherings— spelling— joining. 

" In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth," 



ETYMOLOGY, 75 

q bs> i.— The Classification of Nouns as Common and Proper, is 
one rather of curiosity than of practical utility in the Science of 
Language. In writing or printing such Nouns we begin with a 
Capital Letter. 

q bs> 2. — A Word is known to be a Noun. 

1st. By its being a Name. 

2d. By its performing a Substantive office. 

Obs. 3.— A Substantive may be, 

1. The Subject of a Sentence. 

2. The Object of a Sentence or of a Phrase. 

3. A Name or an Equivalent, independent in construction. 

But, 

Obs. 4— A Substantive office may be performed by Words, by 
Phrases, and by Sentences. 

Examples. 

1. By Words, Nouns.— 1. Paul the Apostle wrote an Epistle to Timothy. 

Pronouns.— 2. Was it you that introduced me to him ? 

2. By Phrases.— 3. " Tafci^ a madman's sword, to prevent Ais doing mischief , 

■ can not be regarded as robbing him." 

3. By Sentences— 4. " 7%a£ a# me^ are created equal, is a self-evident truth." 

5. " But Brutus says, Tte was ambitious.''' 

Hence, 
Obs. 5.— A Noun is generally Substantive. But a Word com- 
monly used as a Noun may become, 

1. An Adjective ; as, An iron fence— gold leaf. 

2. An Adverb ; as, Willie is coming home. 

3. A Verb ; as, " But if you mouth it." 

q bs . 6.— A Substantive office is sometimes performed by words 
commonly used — 

(a.) As Adjectives.- 1. " The good alone are great." 

2. " Nor grudge I thee the much the Grecians give, 

Nor, & murm"ring, take the little I receive."— Dry den. 
(p.) As Adverbs— 3. " 'Tis Heaven itself that points out an hereafter:"— Ad- 
dison. 
(c.) As Conjunctions.- 4. "Your i/ is the only peace-maker ; much virtue is in 

£/."-— Shakspeare. 
(d) As an Exclamation.-*. "With to«£/ and wfoqp/ and wild halloo T- 
Scott. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II 

Modification of Nouns. 
Rem.— Some Nouns and Pronouns, by their form, by their posi- 
tion in a Sentence, or by their obvious uses, indicate— 

1. The sex— as male or female, or neither. 

2. The speaker, the being addressed, or the being or thing spoken 

3. The number of beings or things— as one or more. 

4. The condition, with regard to other Words in the Sentence, as; 

(1.) The Subject of a Sentence. 

(2.) The Object of a Sentence or of a Phrase. 

(3.) Independent in construction. Hence, 

C Gender, 

Most Nouns are modified by ) rerson > 

) Number, and 
v Case. 

Gendee. 

Def. 78.— Gender is the modification of such Nouns 
and Pronouns as, by their form, distinguish the sex. 

Def. 79.— Nouns and Pronouns that indicate Males are 
of the Masculine Gender. 

Examples.— Man-lion-ox-David— John— Cornelius. 

Def. 80.— Nouns and Pronouns indicating Females 
are of the Feminine Gender. 

Examples.- Woman-lioness-cow-Dollie-Jane-Cornelia. 

Def. 81.— Nouns and Pronouns that indicate neither 
Males nor Females, are said to be of the Neuter 
Gender. 

Examples.— Book— pen— table— star— planet. 

Obs. 1.— The term Neuter- GW^ applies only to such Nouns 
and Pronouns as do not denote a male or a female. 

Obs. 2.— Young animals and infants are often represented by 
Pronouns of the Neuter Gender ; as, « Mary's kitten is very play- 
tul—it is quite a pet with the whole family." 

" Calm as an infant as it sweetly sleeps." 



NO UNS- MODIFICATION 



77 



Prik. — The Gender of Nouns is determined — 
1. By the termination ; as, 



Masc. 


Fern. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Administrator, 


Administratrix. 


Lion, 


Lioness. 


Author, 


Authoress. 


Patron, 


Patroness. 


Benefactor, 


Benefactress. 


Prince, 


Princess. 


Emperor, 


Empress. 


Protector, 


Protectress. 


Executor, 


Executrix. 


Shepherd, 


Shepherdess 


Elector, 


Electress. 


Songster, 


Songstress. 


Governor, 


Governess. 


Tiger, 


Tigress. 


Heir, 


Heiress. 


Tutor, 


Tutoress. 


Host, 


Hostess. 


Tailor, 


Tailoress. 


Hero, 


Heroine. 


Widower, 


Widow. 


2. By different Words ; as 


} 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Bachelor, 


Maid. 


Husband, 


Wife. 


Beau, 


Belle. 


King, 


Queen. 


Boy, 


Girl. 


Lad, 


Lass. 


Brother, 


Sister. 


Lord, 


Lady. 


Drake, 


Duck. 


Man, 


Woman. 


Father, 


Mother. 


Master, 


Mistress. 


Friar, 


Nun. 


Nephew, 


Niece. 



3. By prefixing or affixing other Words ; as, 

Masc. Fern. 

Man-servant, Maid-servant, 

He-goat, She-goat, 

Cock-sparrow, Hen-sparrow, 

Landlord, Landlady, 

Gentleman, Gentlewoman. 

Obs. 3.— Whenever Words are used which include both Males 
and Females, without having a direct reference to the sex, the 
Word appropriated to males is commonly employed. 

Examples.— 1. " The proper study of mankind is man." 

2. " There is no flesh in man's obdurate heart — 
It does not feel for man." 



But to this rule there are exceptions ; as, geese, ducks. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART II. 

Obs. 4.— Things personified are often represented by Pronouns 
of the Masculine or of the Feminine Gender. 

Examples.— 1. " Then Fancy her magical pinions spread wide." 

2. " Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope. 

3. " For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast, 

And breathed in the face of the foe as he pass'd." 

Obs. 5.— Many Nouns which denote the office or condition of 
persons, and some others, are not distinguished by Gender ; and 
hence they have no modification of Gender. The persons, indicated 
by such nouns, are, physiologically, males or females; but the words, 
having no form to indicate the sex, have, therefore, no modification 
of gender. The term " Common Gender," given to such words by 
some authors, is about as appropriate as is the term " Common 
Number" would be to the word sheep. 

Examples.— Parent— cousin— friend— neighbor— teacher. 

Obs. 6.— Nouns not modified by Gender may be represented by 
Pronouns of the Masculine or of the Feminine form ; and, when 
thus represented, the Gender of the Noun may follow that of the 
Pronoun. 

Examples.— 1. My cousin has invited me to ride with him. 

2. " She was a kind neighbor— an affectionate parent." 

Note.— In the English language less importance is attached to j 
the Gender of Nouns than in the Latin, Greek, and other lan- 
guages—the relation of Words in Sentences depending more upon 
position and less upon the terminations. Hence, in parsing Nouns 
and Pronouns, the Gender need not be mentioned, unless they are 
obviously Masculine or Feminine. 



Questions for Review, 
page 

73. By their uses, how are words distinguished ? See Prin. 

What Classes of Words are used as Principal Ele- 
ments in Sentences ? See Prin. 

What Classes are used as Adjunct Elements ? See Prin. 

What Classes are used as Attendant Elements ?. . .See Prin. 
How many " Parts of Speech" in the English Lan- 
guage?. See Obs. 1. 



NO UNS—M0DIF1CA TION 79 

PAGE 

What is a Noun ? Give Examples See Def. 72. 

Are all Nouns names of material things ? See Obs. 1. 

What is the difference between Nouns and things ?. . See Obs. 2. 

74. How do we use the word Substantive ? See Obs. 3. 

How are Nouns classified ? See Prin. 

What is a Proper Noun ? Give Examples See Def. 73. 

What is a Common Noun ? Give Examples. See Def. 74. 

What Common Nouns are called Abstract Nouns ? . See Def. 75. 

" " " Collective Nouns ? . See Def. 76. 

" " " Verbal Nouns ? . See Def. 77. 

75. How may we know that a word is a Noun ? See Obs. 2. 

What offices do Substantives fill ? See Obs. 3. 

What, besides Words, perform Substantive offices ? . See Obs. 4. 
Words commonly used as Nouns, may perform 

what other offices ? See Obs. 5. 

Give Examples of Nouns becoming Adjectives, 
Adverbs, Verbs. 

76. What different Modifications of Nouns ? See Prin. 

Define the term Gender as used in Grammar See Def. 78. 

What Nouns are of the Masculine Gender ? See Def. 79. 

What Nouns are of the Feminine Gender ? See Def. 80. 

What Nouns are of the Neuter Gender ? See Def. 81, 

To what Nouns, then, does the term Neuter Gender 

apply ? See Obs. 1. 

What Names of Persons are represented by Neuter 

Pronouns ? See Obs. 2. 

"What Names of tilings are represented by Pronouns 

of the Masculine form ? See Obs. 3. 

77. What Names of things are represented by Pronouns 

of the Feminine form ? See Obs. 4. 

What Nouns are not modified by Gender ? See Obs. 5. 

Words including Males and Females have what 

form ? See Obs. 3. 

By what distinct methods are Nouns varied to de- 
note Gender ? See Prin. 

Give Examples of Change of terminations of Nouns. 

78. " " Different Words. 

" " the use of Prefixes and Suffixes. 

4* 



80 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 



Person. 
Kem.— All Nouns are the Names of 

1. The persons speaking. 

2. The persons or things addressed. Or, 

3. The persons or things spoken of. Hence, 

Dee. 82.— Person is that modification of Nouns and 
Pronouns which distinguishes the Speaker from the 
Person or thing spoken to or spoken of. 

Puitf.-Nouns and Pronouns ( First rers <™> 

are of the j Second rerson, or 

[ Third Person. 

Def. 83.— The name of the speaker or writer is of the 
First Person. 

Example.— "7, John, saw these things." 

Def. 84— The name of & person or thing addressed, is 
of the Second Person. 

Example.-" Father, thy hand hath reared these venerable columns." 

■ Def. 85.— The name of the person or thing spoken of, 
is of the Third Person. 

Example.—" The hero hath departed." 

NUMBEK. 
Rem.— Nouns by their form denote individuality or plurality. 

Def. 86.— Number is that modification of certain 
Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Verbs, whose forms 
distinguish unity from plurality. 

Pbibt.— Nouns are distinguished as \ Sin W ular or 

( Plural. 

Def. 87.— Nouns denoting but one person or thing, are 
of the Singular Number. 

Examples.- Man-boy-pen-book-mouse— ox. 



NO UNS— NUMBER. 



81 



Def. 88.— Nouns denoting more than one, are of the 
Plural Number. 

Examples.— Men— "boys— pens— books— mice— oxen. 

Obs. 1.— The Number of a Noun is usually determined by its 
form. The Plural of most Nouns differs from the Singular by 

having an additional s. m 

° Examples. uu 

Singular.-Mt, Egg, Book, Mastiff, Pen, Chair 

iW.-Acts, Eggs, Books, Mastiffs, Pens, Chairs. 

Obs. 2.— But a Noun whose Singular form ends in s, §§, sh, x, 
cli (soft), and some Nouns in o and y, form the Plural by the addi- 
tion of es. _ ___ 

Examples. —^y^ 

Singtdar.-Q**, Lynx, Church, Lash, Glass, Hero, 

iw.-Gases, Lynxes, Churches, Lashes, Glasses, Heroes. 

Obs. 3.— Y final, after a Consonant, is changed into ie (the origi- 
nal orthography), and § is added. 

Examples. 
Singular.-^, Polly, Quality, City 

OW/otm-Ladie, Pollie, Qmditie C toe. 

Ifcmtf.-Ladies, Pollies, Qualities, Cities. 

Exception.— But Proper Nouns in y commonly form the Plurals 
by adding s to the y ; as, the two Livys— the Tullys. 

0bs< 4__in the following Nouns, f final is changed into v, and 
the usual termination for the plural is added : 

Singular. Plural. 

Self, Selves. 

Shelf, Shelves. 



Singular. Plural. 

Beef, Beeves. 

Calf, Calves. 

Elf, Elves. 

Half, Halves. 



Sheaf, Sheaves. 

Thief, Thieves. 

Wolf, Wolves. 



Leaf, Leaves. Won, vvoive*. 

Loaf; Loaves. ' Yourself, Yourselves. 

Other Nouns in f form their Plurals regularly. 
Obs. 5.— But most Nouns ending in fe are changed into ves. 
Examples. 
Singular.-Kmfe, Life, Wife, 

Plural.— Knives, Lives, Wives. 

q bs> e.— Many Nouns form their Plurals irregularly. 

Examples. 
Singular.-Xm, Child, Foot, Ox, Moose, 

/toirf.-Men, Children, Feet, Oxen, Mice. 



82 



ENGLISH GRAMMAB—PART II 



Obs. 7.— In most Compound Words, the basis only is varied to < 
form the Plural, if its Adjunct Word precedes, or its Adjunct Phrase 
follows. 

Examples. 
^^r.-Fellow-servant, Ink-stand, Race-horse, Camp-meeting, 1 
i^ntf.-Fellow-servants, Ink-stands, Race-horses, Camp-meetiugs. 
Singular.— Father-in-law, Aid-de-camp, 

Plural.— Fathers-in-law, Aides-de-camp. 

Obs. 8.— But, if the Adjunct Word follows the basis, the Plural 
termination is commonly attached to the Adjunct 

Examples. 
Singular.— Arm-full, Camera-obscura, I°-nis-fatuus 

i^mJ.-Arm-fulls, Caniera-obscuras, Ignis-fatuuses. 

Obs. 9.— In forming the Plural of Nouns having titles prefixed ori 
annexed, custom is not uniform. 

There seems to be a propriety in regarding a name and its title as 
a Compound Noun ; as, Jonathan Edwards, John Smith, Miss Bates. 

If, then, it is decided which part of the Compound Word— the 
Name or the Title— is to be regarded as the Basis, and which the 
Adjunct, the Plural termination should be attached as directed in 
Obs. 7 and 8, above. Thus, Miss Bates and her sister, two ladies 
unmarried, are Misses. " I called to see the Misses Bates." 

" We purchase goods of the Messrs. Barber." Here the titles con- 
stitute the Bases— the names, the Adjuncts. 

Again : Patterson the father and Patterson the son are two Pat- 
tersons. They are both doctors. If we speak of them as men we 
make the Name the Basis and the Title as Adjunct; thus " I vis- 
ited the two Doctor Pattersons." But if we speak of them as 
Doctors, we make the Title the Basis, and pluralize it ; thus " We 
employed Doctors J. & A. Patterson." 

Obs. 10.— Some Nouns have no Plurals. 

Examples.— Wheat— silver— gold— iron— gratitude. 

Obs. 11.— Some Nouns have no Singular. 

Examples.— Tongs— embers-vespers— literati— scissors. 

. ° BS - 12 -— Some Nouns have the same Form in both Numbers • 
z. e., they are not modified by Number. 

Examples. 

^^.-Apparatus, News, Wages, Sheep, Vermin 

P^.-A P paratus, News, Wages, Sheep, Vermin: 



NO UNS— NUMBER. 



83 



Obs. 13. — Some Nouns, having a Singular form, are used in a 
Plural sense. 

Examples. — Horse — foot — cavalry — cannon — sail. One thousand Jiorse and 
two thousand/^ — five hundred cavalry — fifty cannon — twenty sail of the line — 
and, for supplies, five hundred Jwad of cattle. 

Obs. 14. — Some Nouns, having no Plural form to indicate Num- 
ber, receive a Plural termination to indicate different species. 

Examples.— Wines.— " Most wines contain over twenty per cent, of alcohol. ,, 
Tea. — "■ The teas of the Nankin Company are all good." 

Obs. 15. — Many Latin, Greek, and Hebrew Nouns used in Eng- 
lish composition, retain their original Plurals. Commonly the 
terminations urn and on, of the Singular, are changed into a, 
for the Plural ; x into ce§, i§ into es, a into ae, and its into i. 







Examples. 


Singvlar.- 
Plural.- 


-Datum, 
-Data, 


Genus, 
Genera, 


Criterion 
Criteria, 


Singular.- 
Plural.- 


-Erratum, 
—Errata, 


Stratum, 
Strata, 


Nebula, 
Nebulae, 


Singular.- 


—Thesis, 


Alumnus, 


Analysis 



Plural. — Theses, Alumni, Analyses, 



Index, Axis, 

Indices, Axes. 

Parenthesis, Focus, 

Parentheses, Foci. 



Ellipsis, 
Ellipses, 



Terminus, 
Termini. 



Questions for Review. 

PAGE 

80. Define the term Person as used in Grammar See Def. 82. 

What " Parts of Speech" have the modification of 

Person ? See Prin. 

How many Persons in Grammar ? See Prin. 

What Nouns are of the First Person ? See Def. 83. 

What Nouns are of the Second Person ? See Def. 84. 

What Nouns are of the Third Person ? See Def. 85. 

* Define the term Number, as used in Grammar. . . See Def. 86. 

How many Numbers, and what are they ? See Prin. 

What Nouns are of the Singular Number ? See Def. 87. 

81. What Nouns are of the Plural Number ? See Def. 88. 

How do we determine the Number — General 

Rule ? See Obs. 1. 

What Nouns take es to form the Plural ? See Obs. 2. 

How form Plural of Nouns ending in y ? — Excep- 
tion ? See Obs. 3. 

How form Plural of Nouns ending in f ? — Excep- 
tions ? See Obs. 4. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

PAGE 

81. How form Plural of Nouns ending in fe ? See Oh, K 

Montis +1^ "NT ,r , o _ & ^ O^tJL/DS. 0. 



Mention the Nouns that form the Plurals irregu- 



larly 



See Obs. 6. 



82. What part of Compound Words are varied for the 

Plurals? See Ob 

What part when Adjunct Word folio wsiheBasVsV See Obs'* 8* 
Explain and apply the law as stated in Obs. 9.. . .See Obs' 9' 

Do all Nouns have Plural forms ? See Obs lo 

Singular forms ? See Obs 11 

Are all Nouns modified by Number ?— Give ex- 
amples c in ._ _ 

83. Do all Plurals have Plural Voms?: \ \ '. \\ '. £ ot' J 

Are Plural forms always used to denote Number ? See Obs' U 
Give examples of Latin Plurals-Greek Plurals. .See Obs 15 

Exercises m Geoter, Person, akd Number. 
m- Let the Class give, 1st, the Gender-2d, the Person-3d the 
Number of each of the following Names,-always gS a reason 
for the modification, by repeating the Definitions * 

William, Boy, Town, Army 

Ganges, Gir] , c * 

Cuba ' n Unt - Tl '° y ' Inde *' 

Cuba, cousm, City, Qaea&m. 

be ^lecrnrPeTso'n .^ * *** ** »***? W <^ *™ 

Model. 
" Father, thy hand hath reared this venerable column " 
Father, Stars, Thou, Heralds 

Mother, Hills V™ ™ ' 

<*«« £• ' Messengers, 

Sun, Eivers, Ye, Walls 

Earth, Woods, Men, Floods. 

Model. 
" My Father made them all." 

J?T Y , he f ? n .° Wing Singular muns be cian ?ed to their Plu- 
chigTof Se" Sent ~- a ^ ^ing tie Bule forte 



NOUNS— CASES. 



85 



Boy, 


Motto, 


Fox, 


Ox, 


Son-in-law, 


Father, 


Hero, 


Staff, 


Pea, 


Spoon-full, 


Man, 


Knife, 


Goose, 


Basis, 


Cousin-german, 


Child, 


Hoof, 


Mouse, 


Stratum, 


Knight-errant. 



Bachelor, 


Brother, 


Poetess, 


Lioness, 


Sons, 


Prince, 


Geese, 


Sister, 


Tutor, 


Cow, 


Maid, 


Widower. 



Model. 
" The boys have accomplished their tasks." 

Let the Gender and Number of the following Nouns be 
changed and placed in Sentences. 

Man, 
Boys, 
Uncles, 
Council, 

Models. 

" Two icomen shall be grinding at the mill." 

" And the widows of Asher are loud in their wail." 

Case. 
Def. 89. — Case is that modification of Nouns and of 
Pronouns indicated by their relation to other words. 

Rem. 1. — A Noun or a Pronoun is used — 1. As the Subject of a 
Sentence. 2. As the Object of an action or relation. 3. As a Defin- 
itive of some other Noun. 4. Independent of other Words in the 
Sentence. 

Bem. 2. — These different conditions of Nouns suggest their modi- 
fications in regard to Case ; for Case, in English Grammar, means 
condition. Hence, 

English Nouns and Pronouns haye four cases — 

The Nominative or Subjective Case, 

The Objective Case, 

The Possessive Case, and 

The Independent Case. 

Obs.— In the Latin, Greek, German, and many other languages, 
the Cases of Nouns are determined by their terminations. But, as 
English Nouns have no inflections, except to form Adjuncts, the 
Cases are determined only by the offices of Nouns in Sentences. 
Hence, 



86 ENGLISH GBAMMAB—PART 11 

Def. 90. — A Noun or a Pronoun which is the Subject 
of a Sentence, is in the Subjective Case.* 

£xamples.— Animals run.— John saws wood— Eesources are developed. 
" The king of shadows loves a shining mark." 

Obs — The Subject of a Sentence may be a Noun, a Pronoun, a 

Phrase, or a Sentence. 

Examples. 

1. A Noun— Virtue secures happiness. 

2. A Pronoun.—" He plants his footsteps in the sea." 

3. A Phrase.—" To be able to read ivell, is a valuable accomplishment. 1 ' 

4. A Sentence.—" That good men sometimes commit faults, can not be denied." 

Def. 91.— A Noun or a Pronoun which is the Object 
of a Sentence or of a Phrase, is in the Objective Case. 

Examples. 

1. John saws wood. 

2. Science promotes happiness. 

3. " The king of shadows loves a shining marled 

4. " In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth." 

5. " Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow." 

Obs.— The Object of a Sentence may consist of a Noun, a Pro- 
noun, a Phrase, or a Sentence. 

Examples.— 1. A Noun.— Clara studies Grammar. 

2. A Pronoun. — Mary instructed her. 

3. A Phrase.— I favored her using the Diagrams. 

4. A Sentence.— Mary thought Diagrams might assist her. 

Dee. 92. — A Noun or a Pronoun varied in its orthog- 
raphy, so that it may indicate a relation of possession, is 
in the Possessive Case. 

Obs. 1.— The Possessive is commonly formed by adding an apos- 
trophe ['] and § to the Nominative form. 

Examples. 
Nominative— Man, Boy, World, George, 

-Man's, Boy's, World's, George's. 



* We prefer the term " Subjective Case" to that of " Nominative." The for- 
mer term indicates the Office of Nouns— the latter, only the form. Every Eng- 
lish Noun has the same form in all its Cases, except the Possessive. Hence, in 
English Syntax, the term "Nominative" has no distinctive significance. But 
the term " Subjective" properly indicates the office. 



jsrouiis— cases. 87 

Obs. 2. — In a few Words ending in the Singular with the sound 
of s or of c soft, the additional s is omitted for euphony. 
Examples. — " For conscience 1 sake. 11 

" Festus came into Felix 1 room." 

Obs. 3. — Most Plural Nouns ending in s, add the apostrophe 

only. 

Examples. 

Nominative.— Horses, Eagles, Foxes, 

Possessive.— Horses 1 , Eagles 1 , Foxes 1 . 

" Heroes 1 and heroines 1 shouts confusedly rise. 11 

Obs. 4. — The term Possessive Case is applied to Nouns and Pro- 
nouns, to indicate a peculiar variation of "Words in respect of 
form; and, because this form commonly indicates a relation of 
possession, it is termed Possessive Case. But, 

Obs. 5. — Nouns and Pronouns in the Possessive Case do not 
always indicate " possession or ownership." 

Children's shoes.— Here the word " children's 11 does not imply ownership. It 
simply specifies " shoes 11 as to size. 

Small shoes.— Here " small " specifies " shoes 11 in a similar manner. ; ' Small 11 
and "children's 11 performing similar offices, are similar in their etymology. 
" Small' 1 is an Adjective—" Children's" is an Adjective. 

Obs. 6. — Possession or ownership is not limited to Nouns and 
Pronouns in the Possessive form. 

Examples. — 1. John owns Webster^ Dictionary. 
2. William has my knife. 

Who possesses the Dictionary ? 
In whose possession is the knife ? 

Rem. — A System of Grammar, having its foundation in the doc- 
trine that Words and other Elements of Sentences are to be classi- 
fied according to their offices — and that is the proper criterion — must 
class Possessive Nouns and Pronouns as Adjectives. 

Obs. 7. — Words commonly used as Nouns and Pronouns become 
Adjectives whenever their 'principal office is to limit or describe beings 
or things; and they may have the form of the Subjective, of the 
Possessive, or of the Objective Case. 

Examples. 

Subjective Form— A. gold pen— a he goat. 

Possessive Form.— Wisdom's ways— thine enemy— my self. 

Objective Form.—K gold yen— silver steel— them selves. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

Def. 93. — A Noun or a Pronoun not dependent on any 
other Word, is in the Independent Case. 

Obs. 1. — We use the term Independent case in a generic sense ; — 
including the five following specific conditions : 

1. The names of persons or things addressed. 
Examples.— O Liberty— Friends— Bomans— Countrymen. 
This may be termed Independent Appellative Case. 

2. Nouns and Pronouns used to introduce Independent Phrases. 
Example.— The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises. 
This is the Case Absolute. 

3. Nouns and Pronouns used in predicate with Verbs and with 
Participles. 

Examples.— 1. God is love. 2. We axe friends. 

3. Is that you? 

4. We had no thought of its being you. 

This is called the Predicate Case. 

4. Nouns and Pronouns used to limit or specify other Nouns 
previously mentioned. 

Example.— Peter the hermit, resembled Peter the Apostle. 

This is the Independent Case in Apposition. [See Logical Ad- 
junct, p. 34.] 

5. Nouns and Pronouns, used as titles of books, signs, cards, or 
for euphony. 

Examples.— Webster's Dictionary.— ■" The Sketch Book."—" Tales of a Trav- 
eler." — " Bracebridge Rail."—" Adams and Ellis."'' 

" The Moon herself is lost in heaven. 1 ' 

This is the Warning Case. 

Rem. — Nouns and Pronouns in these various conditions are 
" not dependent on any other word" for their regimen. 

Obs. 2. — In the English language, Nouns are not varied in form 
to distinguish the Cases, except for the Possessive. The Case is 
always determined by its office. 



NOUNS-CASES, 89 

(1.) If it is the Subject of a Sentence, it is, tlierefwe, in the 
Subjective Case. 

(2.) If it is the Object of a Sentence or the Object of a Phrase, 
it is, therefore, in the Objective Case. 

(3.) If it has a Possessive form, or any other form, and limits 
or describes a being or a thing, it performs the office 
of an Adjunct, and is, therefore, an Adjective. 

(4.) If it performs neither of these offices, it is not joined to 
any word going before in construction, and is, there- 
fore, in the Independent Case. 

Obs. 3. — Nouns and Pronouns in the Subjective or in the Objective 
Case are used Substantively. In the Independent Case they are 
used Substantively, or as Logical Adjuncts. (See Obs. 2, above.) In 
the Possessive Case they are commonly used as Grammatical Ad- 
juncts. 

Obs. 4. — Exception. — Nouns and Pronouns of the Possessive 
form are sometimes used Substantively ; but, when thus used, they 
are in the Subjective, in the Objective, or in the Independent Case. 

Examples. 

(a.) Subjective— "My book is new ; John's is old. 

Mine is little used ; yours is soiled. 

" Mine" is the Subject of the Sentence ; hence in the Subjective 
Case. 

(b.) Objective.— John is a friend of mine. 

" Mine" is the Object of the Preposition " of f hence in the Ob- 
jective Case. 

Note. — It is a mistaken notion of certain grammarians, that 
" mine," in the above example, is equivalent to " my friend," and 
must therefore be " in the Possessive Case, and governed by friend 
understood." 

John is a friend of mine ; i. e., he is friendly to me. 

Fred is my enemy ; but he is a friend of " my friend, John" 

Is " mine" equivalent to "my friend?" How the notion van- 
ishes before the test ! 

ic.) Independent.— The "book is mine; it was yours. 

" Mine" is used in Predicate with " is ;" hence in the Independent 
Predicate Case. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

Exercises.— 1. Peter visited me. 

2. I visited Peter. 

3. Did you ever see the Apostle Peter f 

4. Peter having gone, we returned. 

5. " Thou art Peter.'''' 

6. Where have you been, Peter ? 

7. Peter, what book is that ? 

8. Do you know what the term " Peter's pence" means ? 

Let the pupils tell the Case of the word "Peter" in each Example 
above. 

Then make sentences that shall have the words Mary, Albert, 
Book, Scholars, in each of the cases and in each subdivision of the 
Independent Case. 

Questions for Review. 

PAGE 

85. Define Case as used in English Grammar See Def. 89. 

In what four distinct conditions are Nouns used ? See Rem. 

How many Cases in English Grammar ? See Prin. 

In the Ancient Languages, how were Cases distin- 
guished ? See Obs. 1. 

In English, how are Cases determined ? See Obs. 1. 

86. When is a Noun or a Pronoun in the Nominative 

or Subjective Case ? See Def. 90. 

The Subject of a Sentence may consist of what ? . . . See Obs. 

Give Examples of Nouns used as Subjects. 
" " of Pronouns — of Phrases— of Sentences. 

When is a Noun in the Objective Case? See Def. 91. 

The Object of a Sentence may consist of what ?. . .See Obs. 

Give Examples of Word Objects — of Phrase Ob- 
jects — of Sentence Objects. 

When is a Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive 

Case ? See Def. 92. 

How is the Possessive Case of Nouns formed ?. . , .See Obs. 1. 

87. When do we omit the s ? See Obs. 2. 

What Nouns require the apostrophe ( ' ) ? See Obs. 3. 

Why do we use the term Possessive Case in Gram- 
mar? See Obs. 4 

Do Nouns and Pronouns of the Possessive Case 

always indicate Possession ? See Obs. 5. 

Is possession or ownership always indicated by 

the Possessive Case ? See Obs. 6. 

May a Noun in any form become an Adjective ?. .See Obs. 7. 



PRONOUNS. 91 

PAGE 

88. When is a Noun or a Pronoun in the Independent 

Case ? , See Def. 93, 

In what sense do we use the term Independent 

Case ? See Obs. 1. 

When is an Independent Word called Appellative ? 
" " " " " Absolute? 
" " " " " in Predicate? 
" " " " " in Apposition? 
" " " " " Naming or Nominative. 
All Nouns and Pronouns used as Subjects of Sen- 
tences are in what Case ? ... See Obs. 2. 

All Nouns and Pronouns used as Objects of Sen- 
tences are in what Case ? See Obs. 2. 

All Nouns and Pronouns in Possessive form are in 

what Case ? See Obs. 2. 

All Nouns and Pronouns not Subjects, nor Objects, 

nor Possessives, are in what Case ? See Obs. 2. 

When Possessive Nouns are not used as Adjuncts, 

what case must they be in ? See Obs. 4. 

Pkonouks. 

Rem. — To avoid an unpleasant repetition of the same Word in 
a Sentence, a class of Words is introduced as Substitutes for Names. 
Hence, 

Def. 94. — A Pronoun is a Word used instead of a 
Noun. 

Obs. 1. — As Pronouns are of general application, the Noun or 
the Pronoun for which any given Pronoun is substituted, is com- 
monly determined by the context — and, because it generally pre- 
cedes the Pronoun, it is called its Antecedent. 

Obs. 2. — The Antecedent of a Pronoun may be a Word, a 
Phrase, or a Sentence. 

Examples. 

1. A Word. — " James has injured himself ; he has studied too much." 

2. " Come, ye who love the Lord." 

3. A Phrase.—" William's abandoning a good situation in hopes of a better, 
was never approved by me. It has been the prime cause of all his troubles." 

4. A Sentence.—" I am glad that Charles has secured a liberal education. It 
is what few poor boys have the perseverance to accomplish." 



92 ENGLISH QBAMMAR—PART II. 



Classification of Pronouns. 

Kem. — Some Pronouns, by their forms, denote their modification 
of Gender, Person, Number, and Case. 

Others introduce Adjective Sentences to which they belong. 

Others, in addition to their ordinary office, are used in asking 
questions. 

Others describe the Names for which they are substituted. Hence, 

Pronouns are distinguished as 

Personal Pronouns, 
Melative or Conjunctive Pronouns, 
Interrogative Pronouns, and 
Adjective Pronouns. 

Personal Pronoun. 

Def. 95. — A Personal Pronoun is a Pronoun whose 
form determines its Person and Number. 

Obs.— The Personal Pronouns are \ &fmple or 

( Compound. 

List. 

Simple. — I, thou, you, he, she, it, 

Compound. — Myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, itself. 

Obs. — These are called Personal Pronouns, not because they 
always represent persons, but because their forms decide whether 
they indicate the speaker, the person or the thing spoken to, or the 
person or the thing spoken of. 

Modification. 

Rem. — Whenever one Word is used in the place of another, it is 
properly subjected to the same laws as the other ; this is true of 
Pronouns. Hence, 

Prin. — Pronouns have the same modifications of Gen- 
der, Person, Number, and Case, as Nouns. 

Rem. — To denote these several modifications, some Pronouns 
are varied in form. This variation of form is called Declension. 



PRONOUNS. 93 

Decleksio^ of Pronouns. 
1. Simple Personal Pronouns. 





FIRST PERSON. 




Subjective. 
Singular. — I, 
Plural.— We, 


Possessive. Objective. 
my, me, 
our, us, 

SECOND PERSON. 


Independent. 
I or me* 
we or us. 


Singular. — You, 
Plural. — You, 


your, you, 
your, you, 


you. 
you. 


second person. — Solemn Style. 




Singular. — Thou , 
Plural. — Ye, 


thy, thee, 
your, you, 

third person. — Masculine. 


thou or thee, 
ye or you. 


Singular. — He, 
Plural— They, 


his, him, 
their, them, 

third person. — Feminine. 


he or him. 
they or them . 


Singular. — She, 
Plural— They, 


her, her, 
their, them, 

third person. — Neuter. 


she or her. 
they or them. 


Singular. — It 
Plural — They, 


its, it, 
their, them, 


it. 

they or them. 



Obs. 1. — From the above Paradigm, notice, 

1. That Pronouns of the Third Person Singular only are va- 

ried to denote the sex. 

2. That the Pronoun you is not varied to denote the Number. 

This is a modern innovation ; but the idiom is too 
well established to yield to criticism or protest. 

3. That the principal variations of form are made to distin- 

guish the Cases. 

4. That, to distinguish the Persons, different words are em- 

ployed. 

Obs. 2. — Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are com- 
monly used u to specify or otherwise describe Nouns and Pronouns ;" 

* Pronouns in the Independent Case commonly take the form of the Subjec- 
tive, as, "O happy they!" — "Ah, luckless he/"— "It is I!" But they some- 
times take the form of the Objective, as, "Him excepted." — " I found it to be 
him"— " Ah. me!" 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PABT II 

and when thus used, they are therefore Adjectives.^ They are 
placed here to denote their origin, and to accommodate such teach- 
ers as, by force of habit, are inclined to call them Pronouns in all 
conditions. (See Possessive Specifying Adjectives, p. £§.) 

Obs. 3. — Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are some- 
times used Substantively, i e., as the Subjects or the Objects of 
Sentences— the Objects of Phrases, or as Independent Words ; and 
when thus used, they are therefore Substantives. (See Adjective 
Pronouns.) 

Example S3. 

Subject of a Sentence.— '- My sword and yours are 'km."—Shalcspeare. 
Object of a Sentence.—" You seek your interests ; we follow ours." 
Object of a Phrase.— ■" Therefore leave your forest of beasts for ours of brutes, 
called men.."— Wesley to Pope. 
" John is a friend of mine." 
Independent.—" Thine is the kingdom. 11 

" Theirs had been the vigor of their youth. 11 

Obs. 4. — The Pronoun it is often used indefinitely, and may have 
an Antecedent of the First, the Second, or the Third Person, of the 
Singular or of the Plural number ; and sometimes it has no ante- 
cedent. 

Examples.— "It is I" — " Was it thou?"—" Is it you ?" 

^ It was John— Was it the boys ? 

It snows.— It blows. — It seems. 

Obs. 5. — That for which a Pronoun is used, may also be a 
Phrase or a Sentence. 

Examples. 

A Phrase— -1. " It is good to be here." 
A Sentence.— 2. " It remains that we spealc of its moral effects." 

Eelatiye Pronouns. 

Def. 96.— A Relative* or Conjunctive Pronoun 

is a Pronoun used to introduce a Sentence which quali- 
fies its own antecedent. 

Examples.— 1. The youth who was speaking, was applauded. 

2. We saw the man whom you described. 

3. " Mount the horse which I have chosen for thee." 

* By most authors the term " Kelative" is applied to these Pronouns. " Con- 
junctive" is a more appropriate term, as they always introduce Auxiliary Sen- 
tences. But Pupils may use either term,— as preferred by the Teacher. 



pbojsouns. 95 

Obs. 1. — In Example 1, " who" relates to " youth," and intro- 
duces the Auxiliary Sentence (" who was speaking"), whose office 
it is to describe " youth." 

The word " who" not only introduces the Adjunct Sentence, but 
is also an Element in that Sentence — a Principal Element — the 
Subject. 

In Example 2, " whom you described," is an Auxiliary Sentence, 
used to describe or point out a particular " man ;" " whom/ 1 intro- 
duces that Adjective Sentence, is the object of " described," and re- 
lates to u man." 

List. 

The Words used as Conjunctive Pronouns are, who, which, 
that, and what. 

Obs. 2. — The Words as and than are sometimes, by ellipsis, used 
as Conjunctive Pronouns. 

Examples.— 1. " Such as I have, give I unto thee." 

2. " We have more than heart could wish." 

But, generally, on supplying the ellipsis, we may make those 
words supply the offices of Prepositions or of Conjunctions. Thus, 

1. " I.give unto thee such [things] as [those which] I have." 

2. " We- have more [things] than [those things which] heart could wish." 

Obs. 3. — Who is varied in Declension to indicate the Cases only. 
Which, that) and what, are not declined. But the word whose is 
also used as the Possessive of which. 

Obj. Indep. 

Whom, Who or whom. 

Which, Which. 

That, That. 

What, What. 
Obs. 4. — Who is applied to man, or to beings supposed to pos- 
sess intelligence. 

Examples.— He who studies will excel those who do not. " He whom sea- 
severed realms obey." 

Obs. 5. — WJiich and what are applied to brute animals and to 
things. 

Examples.— The books which I lost.— The pen which I use is good.— We 
value most what costs us most. 

* Whose is always a definitive, attached to Nouns, and may relate to persons 
or to things ; as, " Whose I am, and whom I serve."—" Whose body Nature is, 
and God the soul." 



Nom. 


Pos. 


Who, 


Whose,* 


Which, 


Whose, 


That, 




What, 





96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PABT II 

Obs. 6.—T7iat is applied to man or to things 
Examples.— 1. " Them that honor me, I will honor." 
2. " The rose that all are praising, 
Is not the rose for me. 1 ' 

q bs . 7 t _ What, when used as a Relative, is always compound; 
and is equivalent to that which, or the things which 

Examples.— " What Reason weaves, by Passion is undone." 

Real 1.— In the combination of these two elements, that is con- 
tracted into . .at, and which, the Relative part, is contracted to ich . . ., 

and being prefixed to the Antecedent part, becomes wh at— 

ich at. 

It should be borne in mind that the Antecedent part of this word 
is never Relative— but always an Adjective Pronoun, or an Ad- 
jective. 

Real 2.— The two Elements of this Word never belong to the 
same Sentence ; one part introduces a Sentence which qualifies the 
antecedent part of the same word. 

" Our proper bliss depends on ich at we blame." 

In this example, " what" is a Compound Pronoun, equivalent to 
the two words that ichich. That, the Antecedent part, is the object 
of "on;" "ichich," the Relative part, is the object of " blame." 
The Auxiliary Sentence, " we blame which," is used to qualify 
" that." [See p. 63, last Diagram.] 

Obs. 8. — The Compounds, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichso- 
ever, whatever, and whatsoever, are construed similarly to ichat 
Example.— " Wh at ever purines, fortifies also the heart." 

Rem. I— Ever, in combinations like these, seems originally to 
have been " every"— an Adjective element in the compound word, 
attached to the Antecedent part. Thus, 

Every thing which purifies, fortifies also the heart. 
Every that which purifies, fortifies also the heart. 
What purifies, fortifies, also the heart. 
Every what, or whatever purifies, fortifies also the heart. 
So also 

WJwever is equivalent to 
Every one who. 

" Whoever will, may come." 
Every one who will, may com§. 



PRONOUNS. 97 

Rem. 2.— The antecedent part is sometimes suppressed. 
Example.— " Who— lives to nature, rarely can be poor." 

Every [one] who lives to nature, rarely can be poor. 

W7co ever lives to nature, rarely can be poor. 

Interrogative Pkoxouxs. 

Def. 97.— An Interrogative Pronoun is a Pro- 
noun used to ask a question. 

Examples.—" Who will show us any good? 1 ' 
" WTiich do you prefer ?" 
" TF^a^ will satisfy him ?" 

List. 
Obs. 1. — The Interrogative Pronouns are, 

Who applied to man. 

Which I applied to man or to things. 

What ) 

Examples.— 1. Who was John the Baptist ? 

2. Which will you have ? 

3. What can compensate for loss of character ? 

q bs> 2.— The Antecedent— technically so called— of an Interroga- 
tive Pronoun, is the Word which answers the question. 
Examples.— Who gave the valedictory ? Wheeler. 
Whom shall we obey ? Our parents. 

Obs. 3.— A Word which asks a question is to be construed as is 
the Word which answers it. 

Examples.— Wtuo has the book ? John [has the book]. 

Whose book is it ? [It is] William's [book]. 
" William' V describes " book ;" hence an Adjunct of " book." 
" Whose" ha3 the same construction ; hence an Adjunct of 

" book." 

Adjective Pkoxouxs. 

Def. 98.— An Adjective Pronoun is a Definitive 
Word, used to supply the place of the Word which it 
limits. 

Rem.— Words of this class are primarily Adjectives — becoming 
Pronouns only by being substituted for the Xouns which they de- 
scribe. 

Example.— " Some [ J said one thing, and some, another" [ ]. 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

Obs. 1. — In this Example, " some" defines people (understood), 
and is, therefore, used Adjectively. It is substituted for the Word 
" people," constituting the Subject of the Sentence ; hence it is 
used Substantively. But the Substantive being the principal office, 
the Word is properly called a Pronoun. Its secondary office 
being Adjective, it is properly called an Adjective Pronoun. 

Obs. 2. — Supply the Noun, and the Word becomes simply Ad- 
jective. 

Example.— Some people said one thing, and some people said another 

THING. 

Here "some" and "another" are Specifying Adjectives of 

PEOPLE. 

Obs. 3. — An Adjective Pronoun always performs, at the same 
time, two distinct offices — an Adjective office and a Substantive of- 
fice ; and it may have, at the same time, an Adjective and an Ad- 
verbial Adjunct. 

Example.— 1 ' The prof essedly good are not always really so." 

" Good" describes people (understood), thus performing an Ad- 
jective office. 
" Good" is the Subject of the Sentence ; hence a Substantive. 
As a Substantive, " good" is limited by the Adjective " the." 
As an Adjective, " good" is modified by the Adverb "professedly." 

Rem. — Words thus used are, by some grammarians, called 
"Pronominal Adjectives." We prefer the term " Adjective Pro- 
noun," because the Principal office is Substantive — the Adjective 
office being secondary in the structure of Sentences and of Phrases. 



Obs. 4. — Adjective Pronouns may be derived from— 
Qualifying Adjectives, 
Specifying Adjectives, and 
Verbal Adjectives. 

Obs. 5. — Many Verbal and all Qualifying Adjectives, may become 
Adjective Pronouns by placing the specifying Adjective the before 
them. 

Examples.— 1. " The proof of the pudding is in the eating." 

2. " Who are the called, according to his purpose." 

3. "He sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust." 



PRONOUNS. 99 

Obs. 6. — Adjective Pronouns derived from Specifying Adjectives 
may be 



Possessive, 
Demonstrative, 

The Possessives are — 



Distributive, 
Indefinite. 



Mine — All thine are mine. 

Thine — And thine are mine. 

His — I prefer his to hers. 

Hers — Yet hers is better than his. 

Ours — Miss Ward is a friend of ours. 

Yours — Our grapes are preferable to yours. 

Theirs — Theirs were better than ours. 

The Demonstratives are — 

This — " Memory and Forecast just returns engage, 
That — That pointing back to youth, this, on to age. 
These — " Farewell my friends, farewell my foes. 
Those — My peace with these, my love with those." 

The Distributives are — 

Each — Each prefers his own. 

Either — I shall be satisfied with either. 

Neither — The hats are returned, because neither of them fits. 

None — " None ! Then none have I offended.' ' 

Each other — The two desperadoes killed each other. 

One another — Boys should not interrupt one another. 

The Indefinites are — * 

All— "All join to guard what each desires to gain." 
Another — " Art thou He, or do we look for another . ? " 
Any — Have any of the pupils given an example ? 
Both—" Lepidus flatters both, of both is flattered." 
Some — " Some deemed him wondrous wise." 
Such — Such as I have, give I to you. 

Rem.— Other words, when preceded by the, may be added tc 
each of the above classes. 

The one. The same. The elect. The whole. 

The other. The former. The right. The half. 

The first. The latter. The left. The second. 



100 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II 



Kecapitulation. 







Radical /Inseparable. 






(Prefix. 




By their Forms 


.Derivative . . \ Boot. 
1 Suffix. 
Simple. 


Words are dis-^ 


and 


Compound.. [Jg*^ 


tinguished " 


'Nouns. 






Pronouns. 






Adjectives. 






Verbs. 




By their Uses - 


Adverbs. 
Prepositions. 
Conjunctions. 
Exclamations. 




* 


ta Words of Euphony 




'Proper 




Nouns are - 


or 
Common - 


" Concrete. 
Abstract. 
Collective, 






, Verbal. 



{Personal. 
Relative, or Conjunctive. 
Interrogative. J 
Adjective. 

Modification of Nouns and Pronouns. 

Masculine. 

Gender \ Feminine. 

Neuter. 



Nouns and Pronouns are 
modified by 



Person , 



Number . 



Case 



( First. 

. \ Second. 

( Third. 

\ Singular. 
' { Plural. 

f Subjective. 
J Objective. 
' I Possessive. 

[ Independent. 



PRONOUNS. 101 

Questions foe Review. 

PAGE 

91. Define a Pronoun See Def. 94. 

What is the Antecedent of a Pronoun ? See Obs. 1. 

The Antecedent may consist of what ? See Obs. 2. 

92. How are Pronouns distinguished? See Prin. 

What is a Personal Pronoun ? See Def. 95 

What distinct classes of Personal Pronouns ? See Obs. 

What words are used as Simple Personal Pronouns ? See List. 
What words are called Compound Personal Pronouns f 

Why are these words called Personal Pronouns?. .See Obs. 

What modifications have Pronouns ? See Prin 

What is meant by Declension of Pronouns ? See Rem. 

93. What Pronouns, by their forms, distinguish sex? . .See Obs. 
What Personal Pronouns are alike in both numbers f 

94. What is said of the various uses of the word it f . . . See Obs. 4. 

What is a Relative or Conjunctive Pronoun ? See Def. 96. 

What twofold offices do these words perform ? See Obs. 1. 

95. Give a List of the Relative Pronouns. 

What is said of as and than f See Obs. 2. 

What Conjunctive Pronouns are varied to indicate 

the Case ? See Obs. 3. 

When do we use who ? When use the word what f 

96. When use the word that as a Simple Pronoun ? 

What is the peculiar use of the word what f See Obs. 7. 

Resolve " what" into its elements ; . . .See Rem. 

What part of speech is the Antecedent Element of" whatV 

Name the Compound Relatives See Obs. 8. 

Analyze the words whatever and whoever See Rem. 

97. What is an Interrogative Pronoun? See Def. 97. 

What words are used as Interrogative Pronouns ? See Obs. 1. 
How may we ascertain the Antecedent of an Interrogative ? 

What is an Adjective Pronoun ? See Def. 98. 

Why called Pronouns f See Rem. 

98. Why called Adjective Pronouns ? See Obs. 1. 

How may these words become simply Adjectives ? See Obs. 2. 
How do we show the twofold offices of these 

words ? See Obs. 3. 

From what are Adjective Pronouns derived ? See Obs. 4. 

What are the classes of Adjective Pronouns ? See Obs. 5. 

What Adjectives may become Adjective Pronouns 

—and how ? See Obs. 6. 



102 ENGLISH GBAMMAB-PART II. 

PAGE 

99. What words are used as Possessive Adjective Pronouns ? 

What words are used as Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns ? 
What words are used as Distributive Adjective Pronouns? 
What words are used as Indefinite Adjective Pronouns t 

ADJECTIVES. 

Rem.— As things possess individuality, and have points of difc 
ference from one another, so we have Words which point out and 
describe those things, and mark their differences from other things. 
Hence, 

Def. 99.— An Adjective is a Word used to qualify or 
otherwise describe a Noun or a Pronoun. 

Examples.— Good— amiable — the— our — earnest— falling— young— conscien- 
tious— correct— famous. 



A good boy. 

An amiable young lady. 

Our national resources. 



Falling leaves. 
Conscientious Christian. 
Correct expression. 



Hem.— Any word, of whatever form or origin, used chiefly as an 
Adjunct of a Substantive, is therefore Adjective. 

Classification. 
Rem. — Adjectives are used — 

1. To express a quality— as, good hoy— red rose—sweet apple. 

2. To specify or limit— as, the book— thy pen— three boys. 

3. To express, incidentally, a condition, state, or act— as, loving 
friend— wheeling orbs— injured reputation. Hence 



Pri^.— Adjectives are fas- ( Qualifying Adjectives, 

tinguished as. . 1 ^W»Vi«^w, ai 
° ( Verbal Adjectives. 



Qualifying Adjectives. 

Def. 100.— A Qualifying Adjective is a Word used 
to describe a Substantive by expressing a quality. 

Examples.— Good— sweet— cold— honorable— amiable— virtuous. 
An honorable man. Some good fruit. 

An amiable disposition. Three sweet oranges. 

A virtuous woman. Much cold water. 



ADJECTIVEL 103 

Specifying Adjectives. 

Def. 101. — A Specifying Adjective is a Word used 
to define or limit the application of a Substantive with- 
out denoting a quality. 

Examples.— A— an— the— this— that— some— three— my. 



A mau of letters. 
An educated man. 
The question at issue. 
This road. 



That mountain in the distance. 
Some good fruit. 
Three sweet oranges. 
My enemy. 



Proper Adjectives. 

Def. 102. — Adjectives derived from Proper Nouns are 
called Proper Adjectives. 

Examples.— Arabian— Grecian— Turkish— French. 

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES. 

Obs. — Which, what, and sometimes whose, when used as Adjec- 
tives, are called Interrogative Adjectives when they indicate a question. 

Examples.— 1. Which side will you take ? 

2. What evil hath he done ? 

3. Whose book is that ? 

Rem. — Adjectives may specify — 

1. By simply pointing out things — by limiting or designating 

2. By denoting relation of ownership, adaptation, or origin. 

3. By denoting number, definite or indefinite. Hence, 

Prot.— Specifying Adjec- ( ^ T ure Adjectives, 

-,/,. . t *; 1 Numeral Adjectives, and 

hves are distinguished as j rossessive Adjectives. 

Def. 103. — A Pure Adjective is a Word used only to 
point out or designate things. 



Examples.— The— that— those— such— next— same— other. 
Thou art the man. 
That question is settled. 
Those books are received. 
" Such shames are common." 



The next class. 

The same lesson. 

Other cares intrude. 

Any man may learn wisdom. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II 

Def. 104. — A Possessive Adjective is a Word that 
describes a being or thing by indicating a relation of 
ownership, origin, fitness, etc. 

Examples.— My— our— their— whose— children's— John's— teacher's. 



Children's shoes. 
John's horse. 
Teachers absence. 



My father— my neighbor. 

Our enemies. 

Their losses are severe. 

2. " O my o f f e n s e is rank ; it smells to heaven ; 

3. It hath the primal, eldest curse upon it, 
A brother's murder." 

i. " He heard the king's command, and saw that writing's t ru t h." 

Note. — A Possessive Adjective is generally derived from a Substantive, by 
changing the Normal into the Possessive form. 

Thus : " He heard the king's command," is equivalent to, 
He heard the command of the king. 

Def. 105. — A Numeral Adjective is a Word used to 
denote Number. 

Examples.— One— ten— first— second— fourfold— few— many. 
Obs. 1. — Numeral Adjectives may be, 

Cardinal. — One — two — three — four. 
Ordinal. — First — second — third — fourth. 
Multiplicative. — Single — double — quadruple. 
Indefinite. — Few — many — some (denoting number). 

Obs. 2. — A and an, when they denote number, are to be classed 
as Numeral Adjectives. 

Examples.— 1. " Not a drum was heard, nor a funeral note." 
Not one drum was heard. 
?. " Not an instance is on record." 
Not one instance is on record. 

Verbal Adjectives. 

Def. 106. —A Verbal Adjective is a Word used to 
describe a Noun or a Pronoun, "by expressing, incident- 
ally, a condition, state, or act. 

Obs. — This class of Adjectives consists of Participles, used pri- 
marily to describe Kouns and Pronouns. 

Examples.— 1. A running brook. 2. A standing pond. 

3. I saw a boy running to school. 

4. Another standing by the way. 



ADJECTIVES. 105 






5. " Scaling yonder peak, 

I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow. 



In this example the Sentence is, " I saw eagle;" and "scaling 
yonder peak," is a Phrase used to describe M I." " Wheeling near 
its brtfw," describes " eagle." Scaling and wheeling are Participles 
used to describe a Noun and a Pronoun — hence they are, in their 
office, Adjectives. (See Def. 99.) They describe by expressing 
(not in the character of Predicates, but), " incidentally, a condition, 
state, or act," of " I" and " eagle" — hence they are Verbal Ad- 
jectives. 

Rem. 1. — To render the classification more simple, we have pre- 
ferred to class all Participles used chiefly to describe Nouns and 
Pronouns, as Adjectives — and, because they are derived from Verbs, 
and retain more or less of the properties of the Verbs from which 
they are derived, we use the term Verbal Adjectives. 

But Teachers who are unwilling to do more than simply to call 
them Participles, will not find it difficult to adapt their views to 
the plan of this work ; the Pupil being taught that — 

" Participles, like Adjectives, belong to Nouns and Pronouns." 

And, in the use of Diagrams — 

" Participles used to limit Substantives, occupy the same position 
as Adjectives." 

Rem. 2.— Participles used as Adjectives, commonly retain their 
verbal character, and, like their Verbs, may have Objects after 
them. Hence, 

Pkik. — Verlal Adjectives are dis- j Transitive or 
languished as ( Intransitive. 

Examples. 
Intransitive.— 1. " He possessed a well-balanced mind." 

2. " Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again." 
Transitive.— 3. " Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle." 
4. " We saw the children picking berries" 

Compound Adjectives. 

Def. 107. — Adjectives consisting of Compound Words 
are called Compound Adjectives. 

Examples.— Everlasting— hard-hearted— tempest-tossed. 



106 ENGLISH GBAMMAB—PABT II 

Modification of Adjectives. 

Hem. — Most Qualifying Adjectives express, by variations in 
form, different degrees of quality. Hence, 

Pein. — Some Adjectives are varied in form to denote 
Comparison. 
There may be four degrees of comparison. 

1. Diminutive bluish saltish. 

2. Positive blue salt. 

3. Comparative bluer Salter. 

4. Superlative bluest sal test. 

Def. 108. — The Diminutive Degree denotes an 
amount of the quality less than the Positive. 

It is commonly formed by adding ish to the form of the Positive. 
Examples.— Bluish— saltish. 

Def. 109. — The Positive Degree expresses quality in 
its simplest form. 

Examples. — Blue — salt— large — pure— rich— good — glimmering. 

Def. 110. — The Comparative Degree expresses an 
increase or a decrease of the Positive. 

It is commonly formed by adding er. or the Words more or less, 
to the form of the Positive. 

Examples.— 1. Larger— purer— richer— more common-fes objectionable. 
2. " Richer by far is the heart's adoration." 

Def. 111. — The Superlative Degree expresses the 
greatest increase or decrease of the quality of the Ad- 
jective. 

It is commonly formed by adding est, or the Words most or least, 
to the form of the Positive. 

Examples. — 1. Largest— purest— most ungrateful — smallest — uppermost. 
2. " The 2)urest treasure mortal times afford 
Is— spotless reputation." 

Obs. 1. — By the use of other Words, the degrees of Comparison 
may be rendered indefinitely numerous. 

Examples. — Cautious — somewhat cautious—am/ cautious — unusually cau- 
tious—remarkably cautious— exceedingly cautious— too little cautious— zmcautious 
— quite wttcautious. 



ADJECTIVES. 107 

Obs. 2. — Comparison descending, is expressed by prefixing the 
Words less and least to the Adjective. 

Examples.— Wise, less wise, least wise— ambitious, less ambitious, least am- 
bitious. 

Obs. 3. — Most Adjectives of two or more syllables are compared 
by prefixing the words more and most, or less and least, to the 
Positive. 

Examples. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Careful more careful ?nost careful. 

Careful less careful least careful. 

Obs. 4. — Some Adjectives may be compared by either method 
specified above. 

Examples. 



Comparative. Superlative. 

Remote remoter remote. 

Remote more remote most remote. 

Irregular Comparison. 
Some Adjectives are irregular in comparison. 

Examples. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Good , better best. 

Bad .worse worst. 

Little , . .less least. 

Many more most. 

Much more most. 

farther farthest. 

further furthermost 

Q, | j older oldest 

i elder eldest. 

Obs. 5. — Some Adjectives want the Positive. 
Examples.— 1. After, aftermost— nether, nethermost. 
2. " He was in the after part of the ship." 

Obs. 6. — Some Adjectives want the Comparative. 

Examples.— 1. Top, topmost. 

2. " He stood upon the topmost round." 



Far \ 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

Obs. 7. — Some Adjectives can not be compared — the qualities 
they indicate not being susceptible of increase or diminution. 

Examples.— Round— square— triangular— infinite. 

Adjective Phrases a:nt> Seote^ces. 

Rem. — Things may be described not only by Words, but also by 
Phrases and by Sentences. 

Examples. 

Adjective Phrases.— 1. " The time of my departure is at hand." 

2. " Night is the time for rest." 11 

3. " Turn, gentle hermit of the vale." 

" Of my departure," tells what " time." " Of the vale," is a 
Phrase, used here to tell what " hermit." Hence an Adjective 
Phrase. 

Adjective Sentences.— 1. " He that getteth wisdom, loveth his own soul." 

2. Mount the horse which I have chosen foi y thee. 

3. " Thou, whose spell can raise the dead, 

Bid the prophet's form appear." 

" Which I have chosen for thee," is a Sentence used here to tell 
which " horse." Hence an Adjective Sentence. 

Kecapitulatiok. 

{Superlative. 
Comparative. 
Diminutive. 

( Pure. 

Specifying -J Numeral. 

( Possessive. 

Verbal \ Transitive. 

VeiDal llntransitiv 



Adjectives are distinguished as j 



Live. 



Exercises. 



ItJP Let the Pupil determine which of the following Adjectives 
are Qualifying, which are Specifying, and which are Verbal. Of 
the Qualifying Adjectives, which can be compared, and how com- 
pared—of the Specifying Adjectives, which are Pure, which Nu- 
meral, and which Possessive — of the Verbal, which are Transitive 
and which are Intransitive. 



ADJECTIVES. 



109 



Able, False, That, Forgotten, 

Bold, Good, Three, Standing, 

Capable, Honest, Tenth, Loving, 

Doubtful, Infinite, Twice, Admonished, 

Eager, Just, Several, Unknown, 

These, Dim, Human, Winding. 

Then place the Words in Sentences, and Parse them after the 
models given below. Thus, 

" These dim vaults, these winding aisles 
Of human pomp or pride, report not." 

First Model. 

These describe "vaults;" hence an Adjective — for "a Word 

used to qualify or otherwise describe a Noun or a Pro- 
noun, is an Adjective." 

" Specifies; hence Specifying — for " an Adjective used 

only to limit, is a Specifying Adjective." 

Dim qualifies " vaults ;" hence an Adjective — for " a Word 

used to qualify or otherwise describe a Noun or a Pro- 
noun, is an Adjective." 
" ......Expresses a quality; hence Qualifying — for "a Word 

v used to describe a Noun by expressing a quality, is a 
Qualifying Adjective." 

Vaults is a Name ; hence a Noun — for " the Name of a being, 

place, or thing, is a Noun." 

" Name of a sort or class ; hence common — for " a Name 

used to designate a class or sort of beings, places, or 
things, is a Common Noun." 
" ... .Spoken of; hence, Third Person — for " the Name of a 
person or thing spoken of, is of the Third Person." 

" Denotes more than one ; hence Plural Number — for 

" Nouns denoting more than one, are of the Plural 
Number." 

" Subject of the Sentence; hence Subjective Case — for 

" the subject of a Sentence is in the Subjective Case." 
Winding, .describes " aisles;" hence an Adjective — for "a Word 
used to qualify or otherwise describe a Noun or a Pro- 
noun, is an Adjective." 
" . . describes, by expressing a condition ; hence Verbal — for 
" a Word used to describe a Noun by expressing, inci- 
dentally, a condition, state, or act, is a Verbal Adjective." 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART IL 

Human. . .describes " pomp" or " pride ; M hence an Adjective — for 
" a Word used to qualify or otherwise describe a Noun 
or a Pronoun, is an Adjective." 
" ...Expresses a quality; hence Qualifying — for " a Word 
used to describe a Noun by expressing a quality, is a 
Qualifying Adjective." 

[It is profitable to repeat the Definitions until they become familiar ; after 
that they may be omitted— the parts of speech and the classes and modifications 
of the several Words being simply named, as in the following exercise.] 

Second Model. 

" No fantastic carvings show 
The boast of our vain race, to change the form 
Of thy fair works. 11 

Class. Person. Number. Case. 

No is an Adjective Specifying, limits li carvings." 

Fantastic " Adjective Qualifying, — — qualifies " carvings. 11 

Carvings " Noun Common, Third, Plu. Sub. to " show. 11 

The " Adjective Specifying, limits " boast. 11 

Boast " Noun Common, Third, Sing. Obj. of " show. 11 

(Rap The Teacher will abridge or extend these Exercises at 
pleasure. Then let four Sentences be made, each containing the 
Word good, so that, in the first, it will qualify the Subject — in the 
second, the Object — in the third, the Object of a Phrase attached 
to the Subject — in the fourth, the Object of a Phrase attached to 
the Object. 

In like manner use the Words amiable — honest — industrious — wise 
— this — some — loving — loved. Thus, 

1. That amiable young lady was at the lecture. 

2. We saw the amiable gentleman. 

3. The benefits of an amiable disposition are numerous. 

4. She possesses the advantages of an amiable temper 

Questions for Review, 
page 
102. What is an Adjective ? See Def. 99. 

Why are Adjectives used ? See Rem. 1. 

For what various purposes are Adjectives used f . See Rem. 2. 

How are Adjectives distinguished? 

What is a Qualifying Adjective ? See Def. 100. 

Give Examples. 



VERBS. Ill 

PAGE 

103. What is a Specifying Adjective ?. See Def. 101. 

Give Examples. 

What is a Proper Adjective ? See Def. 102. 

Give Examples. 

What is an Interrogative Adjective ? See Obs. 

Give Examples. 

How are Specifying Adjectives distinguished? 

What is a Pure Specifying Adjective ? See Def. 103. 

104. What is a Possessive Specifying Adjective ? . . .See Def. 104. 

How are Possessive Adjectives formed ? See Note. 

What is a Numeral Adjective ? See Def. 105. 

Give Examples. 

What is a Verbal Adjective ? See Def. 106. 

Give Examples. 

105. How are Verbal Adjectives distinguished? See Prin. 

106. How are Adjectives modified ? See Prin. 

How many Degrees of Comparison may some 

Adjectives have ? See Obs. 

When is an Adjective of the Diminutive form ?. See Def. 108. 

When is an Adjective of the Positive form ? See Def. 109. 

When is an Adjective of the Comparative form ? 

When is an Adjective of the Superlative form ?. See Def. 110. 

107. What is said of Comparison descending ? See Obs. 2 : 

When do we prefix a Word to denote Compari- 
son ? See Obs. 3. 

What Adjectives are compared irregularly? 

Are all Adjectives compared ? See Obs. 7. 



VERBS. 

Remark. — As all things in the universe live, move, or have a be- 
ing, we necessarily have a class of Words used to express the act, 
being, or state of those things. Hence, 

Def. 112. — A Verb is a Word used to express the act, 
being, or state of a person or of a thing. . 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Remark. — (a.) Some Verbs are used as Predicates of Sentences ; 
others are used as Subsequents of Phrases. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

(b.) Some are followed by Objects; others have no 
Objects. 

(c.) Some are used to make a principal assertion ; oth- 
ers are used to indicate manner, time, or other 
contingency. 

(<£) Some admit a regular method of Conjugation; 
others have special or peculiar forms to indicate 
their modifications. 

Hence, 
Prist. — By their functions, 



Verbs are J 



Finite or 
Infinite. 



Prii^. — By their relation to Objects, 

, T , ( Transitive or 

Verbs are < ,. A 

{ Intransitive. 

Pki:n\ — By their offices in Predicate, 

- T , ( Principal or 

Verbs are \ . 

( Auxiliary. 

Prist. — By their variations in form, 

xr , ( Megular or 

Verbs are •< ^ 

( Irregular. 

Def. 113. — A Finite Verb is a Verb that is used in 
Predicate of a Sentence. 

Examples.— John studies— Re learns. 

Obs. — Every Finite Verb must be associated with a Substantive 
as its Subject — expressed or implied. 

Def. 114. — An Infinitive Verb is a Verb that is not 
used in Predicate of a Sentence. 

Obs. — Infinitive Verbs are used as Subsequents of Infinitive 
Phrases — always used with the Preposition to, expressed or un- 
derstood. 

Examples.— To learn— John is eager to learn. 



VERBS— CLASSES. 113 

Def. 115.— A Verb is Transitive when it expresses 
an action which terminates on an Object. 

Examples.— John saws tuood—God created heaven and earth. 

Def. 116.— A Verb is Intransitive when it expresses 
the being or state of its Subject, or an action which does 
not terminate on an Object. 

Examples.— Animals run— I sit— John is sleepy. 

Obs. 1.— Some Verbs are, in their nature, Transitive ; others are 
naturally Intransitive ; and some others are used transitively or 

intransitively. 

Examples. 

1. « Cold blows the wind." " Blows" is Intransitive. 

% " The wind blows the dust." " Blows" is Transitive. 

3. " It has swept through the earth." Intransitive. 

4. " Jane has swept the floor." Transitive. 

5. " God moves in a mysterious way." Intransitive. 

6. " Such influences do not move me." Transitive. 

Hence, 

Obs. 2.— The character of a Verb is determined by that of the Sen- 
tence of which it is the Predicate. Any Verb is transitive only 
when its Sentence is transitive— only when it demands an Object 
in construction. 

D EF . 117.— A Principal Verb is a Verb that makes 
the complete or the principal assertion. 

Examples.— John does study— James can study— Anne should study. 

Def. 118.— An Auxiliary Verb is a Verb that is pre- 
fixed to another Verb or to a Participle, to distinguish the 
Voice, Mode, or Tense of the Principal Verb. 

List. 
Always Auxiliaries. 
Present.— Can, may, must, shall, 

Fast.— Could, might, should. 

Sometimes Principal Verbs. 
Present.— Am, be, do, have, will, 

Past— Was, was, did, had, would. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

Def. 119. — A Verb whose Past Tense is formed by the 
addition of ed to the Radical, is Regular in Conjugation. 

Examples. — Present Tense. — I love, act, save, fear, 
Past Tense.— I lovec?, actetf, savetf, feared. 

Obs. — All Regular Verbs are conjugated in the same manner — 
having similar terminations for the same tenses. 

Exception 1. — Some Verbs, for euphony, drop the final letter of 
the Radical. 

Examples.— Love, loved— Save, saved— Recite, recitetf. 

Exception 2. — Some Verbs, for euphony, drop a final letter of the 
Radical. 

Examples.— Tan, tanned— Transmit, transmitted. 

Def. 120. — A Verb whose Past Tense is not made by 
the addition of d or ed to the Radical, is Irregular in 
Conjugation. 

Examples.— Present Tense.— I am, see, do, hide, lay, 
Past Tense.— 1 was, saw, did, hid, laid. 

Def. 121. — A Complete Verb is a Verb that has an 
appropriate form for all the Modes and Tenses. 

Examples.— Love— Recite— See— Teach. 

Rem. — Some Irregular Verbs are not used in all the Modes and 
Tenses : Hence, 

Def. 122. — A Defective Verb is a Verb that is not 
used in all the Modes and Tenses. 

List. 

Present.— Can, may, must, ought, shall, will, 

Past.— Could, might, ought, quoth, should, would. 

Def. 123.— A Redundant Verb is a Verb that has 
more than one form for some of the Modes and Tenses. 

Examples.— Am or be— Break, broke or brake, broken or broke. 

Def. 124. — The Verb be and some of its compounds 
are, by most Grammarians, called Neuter Verbs. 

Examples.— I am— He is— John became wise, Cuba belongs to Spain. 



VERBS— GLASSES. 115 

Obs. 1.— Some authors include, with the above, an extended list 
of Verbs that do not predicate physical or mental acts. 

But, 

Obs. 2. — The term Neuter Verb seems properly to apply only to 
the Verb be, and its equivalents. The term Copulative Verb is ap- 
plied to it by many authors. As this Verb is recognized by either 
name, our chief concern should be its use. It is used, 

1st. In Predicate alone, to declare simple existence. 

2d. To connect its Subject to an Attribute : — i. e., to change an 

Assumed Attribute to a Predication. 
3d. To form — with a Past Participle — the Passive Voice. 

Examples. 

1. I am — Thou art — He is. 

2. Assumed.— Singing. Cheerful Dora. Our friends. 
Asserted.— Anna is singing. Dora is cheerful. They are our friends. 

3. Active.— Dora loves Anna. Caesar conquered Gaul. We have seen him. 
Passive.— Anna is loved. Gaul was conquered. He has been seen. 

Questions for Keview. 

TAGE 

111. What is a Verb ? Give Examples See Def. 112. 

How are Verbs distinguished ? See Rem. 

112. What is a Finite Verb ? Give Examples See Def. 113. 

A Finite Verb must always be associated with 

what? See Obs. 1. 

What is an Infinitive Verb ? Give Examples. .See Def. 114. 
In what connection are Infinitive Verbs used ? . . See Obs. 2. 

113. What is a Transitive Verb ? Give Examples. .See Def. 115. 
What is an Intransitive Verb? Give Examples. See Def. 116. 
May some Verbs be used Transitively or Intran- 
sitively ? Give Examples See Obs. 1. 

How do we decide that a Verb is Transitive ? . . . See Obs. 2. 
What is a Principal Verb ? Give Examples. . . See Def. 117. 
What is an Auxiliary Verb ? Give Examples . See Def. 118. 
Give the list of Verbs that are always Auxiliary. 
Give the list of Verbs that are sometimes Principal. 

114. What Verbs are said to be Regular ? Give Ex. See Def. 119. 
What Verbs are Irregular ? Give Examples. . . See Def. 120. 
What Verbs are said to be Complete? Give 

Examples See Def. 121. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

PAGE 

114. What Verbs are said to be Defective? Give 

Examples See Def. 122. 

"What Verbs are said to be Redundant? See Def. 123. 

What is said of the Neuter Verb ? See Def. 124. 

115. Why is the Verb be called Copulative ? See Obs. 1. 

What distinct offices does this Verb perform ? . . . See Obs. 2. _ I 

Modification op Verbs. 

Rem. — Verbs that denote action, have two methods of represent- 
ing the action — 

1st — As done by its Subject — as, Clara loves Anna. 

2d — As done to its Subject — as, Anna is loved by Clara. 

Hence, 

m -L- tt -u i ± TT • \ The Active and 

Transitive verbs nave two Voices. <_. . 

' ( The Passive. 

Def. 125. — A Verb in the Active Voice represents its 
Subject as performing an action. 

Example.— Columbus discovered America. 

Def. 126. — A Verb in the Passive Voice represents 
its Subject as being acted upon. 

Example.— America was discovered by Columbus. 

Obs. 1. — The same fact may commonly be expressed by either 
the Active or the Passive form. 

ExAMPLES.-William assists Charles. 1 The game fact gtate(L 

Charles is assisted by William. ) 

" William," the Subject of the Active Verb, becomes the Object 
of " by," when the Verb becomes Passive ; and " Charles," the Ob- 
ject of the Active Verb, becomes the Subject of the Passive. 

Obs. 2. — In the English language, the formation of the Passive 
Yoice is less simple than in many other languages. Thus, the cor- 
responding assertions, 

In Latin. — Doceo, in the Active Voice, has Doceor in the Passive. 
In English.— I teach^ " " " " I am taught " " 

Hence, the English Verb does not form its Passive Yoice by an 
" inflection of the form of the Active," but by combining the 



VERBS— MODES. 117 

Copulative Verb be, in its various modifications, with a Participle 

of the given Verb. 

Examples. 

Active.— To i?ee, I love, They applaud, Man worships, 

Passive.— To be seen, I am loved, They are applauded, God is worshipped. 

Obs. 3. — Thus it appears that, in English, the Passive form of a 
Verb rejects the Verb itself, — only its Participle being retained. 

Obs. 4. — Most Transitive Verbs may take the Passive form. 

Obs. 5. — A Verb taking the Passive form becomes grammatically 
intransitive. The action is directed to no Object. The Subject 
receives the action. 

Obs. 6. — But few Intransitive Verbs take the Passive form. 
Examples. 

1. We laughed at his clownish performances.— (Active Intransitive.) 

2. His clownish performance was laughed a£.— (Passive.) 

Eem. — Expressions like the last are inelegant, and should not be 
used except in colloquial style. 

MODE. 

Eem. — In addition to their primary signification, Verbs perform 
a secondary office— i. e., they indicate some attendant or qualifying 
circumstances. This is indicated by the variations of the form of 
the Verb, or by prefixing Auxiliary Words. 

Def. 127. — Mode means manner or method. In Gram- 
mar, Mode is a property of the Verb which indicates the 
manner of its use. 

1. A Finite Verb may simply express a fact. 

2. It may express a fact as possible, probable, obligatory, &c. 

3. It may express a fact conditionally. 

4. It may express a command or request. 

5. It may express the name of an act, or a fact unlimited by a 
Subject. Hence, 

Finite Verbs have five modes of expressing their sig- 
nification — 

The Indicative, The Subjunctive, 

The Potential, The Imperative, and 

The Infinitive. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR—PART II. 

Def. 128. — A Verb used simply to indicate or assert a 
fact, is in the 

Indicative Mode. 

Examples.— 1. " God created the heaven and the earth. 11 

2. " Rays of limpid light gleamed round their path." 

Obs. — " A conditional circumstance assumed as a fact" is prop- 
erly expressed by a verb in the Indicative form. 

Examples. 
Correct. — 1. If Frank tells the truth, the fault is not his. 
2. If you will go, I will accompany you. 
Incorrect. — 3. If Arthur be innocent, he should not be punished. 
4. If he be right, I am wrong. 

Def. 129. — A Verb indicating probability, power, will, 
or obligation, of its Subject, is in the 

Potential Mode. 

Obs. 1, — Words which maybe regarded as signs of the Potential 
Mode, are, may — might — can — could — must — shall — should — will — 
icould, either alone, or followed by the Word have. 

Examples.— I may go— You might have gone— John should study— Mary can 
learn — It could not be done — John shall study. 

Obs. 2. — Verbs in the Indicative and the Potential Modes may be 
used in Interrogative Sentences. (See p. gg.) 

Examples.— 1. " Did Claudius waylay Milo ?" 

2. " May one be pardoned and retain the offense ?" 

Def. 130. — A Verb expressing a fact conditionally 
(hypothetically) is in the 

Subjunctive Mode. 

- Example.—' 1 If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." 

Obs. — If, though, unless, and other Conjunctions, are commonly 
used with the Subjunctive Mode. But they are not to be regarded 
as the signs of this Mode, for they are also used with the Indicative 
and with the Potential. 



VERBS— MODES. 119 

Examples.— 1. If the boat goes to-day, I shall go in it. 
2. I would stay, if I could conveniently. 

The condition expressed by " if the boat goes," is assumed as a 
fact — hence, " goes" is in the Indicative Mode. 

Note. — The Subjunctive Mode is limited to Auxiliary Adverbial 
Sentences. Whereas the Indicative and the Potential may be used 
in either Principal or Auxiliary Sentences. 

Def. 131. — A Verb used to command or entreat is in 
Imperative Mode. 

Examples.— 1. " If he repent, forgive him." 

2. " Come to the bridal chamber, Death I" 

Obs. — As we can command only a person or a thing addressed, 
the Subject of an Imperative Yerb must be of the Second Person ; 
and, as a person addressed is supposed to be present to the speaker, 
the name of the Subject is usually understood. 

Examples.— 1. Cry aloud— spare not,— obey your parents. 
2. " Speak gently to the little child." 

But it is often expressed, 

" Go yg into all the world." 

Def. 132. — A Verb used without limitation by a Sub- 
ject, is in the 

Infinitive Mode. 

Obs. 1.— The Preposition to, is usually placed before the Infini- 
tive Yerb. 

Examples.— 1. " To enjoy is to obey." 

2. " I came not here to talk." 

Obs. 2. — But that Word is sometimes suppressed. 

Example.—" Let me hear thy voice awake, and bid her 
Give me new and glorious hopes." 

Note. — The Infinitive differs from the other Modes in this : — It 
has no Grammatical Subject, and therefore it can not be a Predicate. 
It is used, not as an element in a Sentence, but as a constituent ele- 
ment in an Infinitive Phrase— the Subsequent. It is analogous to a 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II 

Participle, participating of the properties of a Verb and also of a 
Substantive — always the Object of the Preposition to expressed or 
implied. 

Formerly, in our English Dictionaries, the Preposition to was 
placed before words to indicate that they were Yerbs. 

This practice of Lexicographers — now obsolete — led some Gram- 
marians into the error of regarding the Preposition to, placed before 
a Verb in the Infinitive Mode, as a part of the Verb. 

But that Preposition is no more a part of the Yerb than is the 
Preposition for a part of the Participle or of the Noun following, — 
as shown in the following 

Examples. — 1. We are prepared to recite. 

2. We are prepared/or reciting. 

3. We are prepared/or recitation. 

Rem. — The Infinitive is not improperly called a species of Par- 
ticiple : — always participating of the properties of a Yerb and also 
of a Substantive. 

Obs. 3. — While the Infinitive Verb always has a Substantive char- 
acter, the Phrase of which it is a part may be, in office, 

Substantive.—" To err is human. " 
Adjective.— They had a mind to work. 
Adverbial.— John is eager to learn. 
Independent— u To sleep! perchance to dream." 

Questions for Beview. 

PAGE 

116. When is a Yerb said to be in the Active Voice ?. . See Def. 125. 
When is a Yerb said to be in the Passive Voice ?. See Def. 126. 

Can the same fact be asserted in either form ? See Obs. 1. 

Give Examples of the changes of Active to Passive. 

What Auxiliary Yerb is used to form the Passive 

Yerb ? See Obs. 2. 

What part of the Principal Yerb is retained in 

the Passive ? See Obs. 3. 

117. What class of Yerbs may take the Passive form ?. . See Obs. 4. 

What is Mode in Grammar? See Def. 127. 

How many different Modes— and what ? See Prin. 

118. When is a Yerb in the Indicative Mode ? See Def. 128. 

Make a Sentence whose Yerb shall be in the Indicative. 

When is a Yerb in the Potential Mode ? See Def. 129, 

What words are used as Signs of the Potential Mode ? 



PARTICIPLES. 121 

PAGE 

118. Make Sentences whose Verbs shall be in the Potential Mode. 
The Verbs in Interrogative Sentences may be in 

what Modes ? See Obs. 2. 

When is a Verb in the Subjunctive Mode ? See Def. 130. 

What Conjunctions introduce Subjunctive Sen- 
tences ? See Obs. 

119. What sort of Sentence has its Verb in the Sub- 

junctive Mode ? See Note. 

Make a Sentence whose Verb is in the Subjunctive Mode. 

When is a Verb in the Imperative Mode ? See Def. 131. 

Make a Sentence whose Verb is in the Imperative Mode. 

What is said of the Subject of an Imperative Sen- 
tence ? See Obs. 

When is a Verb in the Infinitive Mode ? See Def. 132. 

What commonly precedes the Infinitive Verb ?. . .See Obs. 1. 

Wherein does the Infinitive Mode differ from the 

other Modes ? See Xote. 

Does the Infinitive occur in Sentences or in 

Phrases ? See Xote. 

120. Wherein does the Infinite resemble the Participle ? . See Xote. 
What are the two offices performed by the Infinitive Verb ? 
What different offices may Infinitive Phrases per- 
form ? See Obs. 3. 

Make a Sentence having an Infinitive Phrase as its Subject. 
Make an Infinitive Phrase, and use it as an Adjective. 

« a u u ci Adverb. 

" « " " Independently. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Rem. — In the three Sentences, 

1. Birds sing, 

2. Birds are singing, 

3. Singing birds delight us, 

the Word " sing" (in Example 1) is a Verb — used to assert an act 
Of " birds." 

In Example 2, " singing" is derived from the same Verb ; and with 
the aid of the Auxiliary Verb " are," it makes the same assertion. 

In Example 3, M singing" does not assert, but it assumes the same 
act. 

The same signification remains in the three Words, while they 
perform different grammatical offices. Hence, 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PABT II 

Def. 133. — A Participle is a Word derived from a 
Verb, retaining the signification of its Verb, while it also 
performs the- office of some other "part of speech." 

Obs. — Participles are Derivative Words, formed from their Kadi- 
cals — commonly by the addition of ing or ed. 

Examples.— Be ...... being. Love loving loved. 

Have . . .having. Walk walking . . walked. 

Rem. — A Participle is used with or without an Auxiliary prefixed. 

Hence, 

^ ,. . , ( Simple or 

Participles are < „ 

x ( Compound. 

Def. 134. — A Simple Participle is a single Word 
derived from its Verb. 

Examples.— Loving, loved— having, had— being, been. 

Def. 135. — A Compound Participle consists of a 
Simple Participle, with the Auxiliary Participles " hav- 
ing" or "being," or "having been." 

Examples. 

Simple i {- ^ 0Yil f Rearing. 

i 2. Loved Feared. 

!3. Being loved Being feared. 
4. Having loved Having feared. 
5. Having been loved Having been feared. . 
6. Having been loving , Having been fearing. 

C 1. Present 9 

Participles are distinguished as < 2. Prior Present, 

(3. Past. 

Def. 136. — The Present Participle is the Participle 
formed by adding ing to the root of the Verb — indicating 
a present act, being, or state. 

Examples.— Being— having— loving— walking— doing— fearing. 

Obs. — When the Participle is used with a Verb, the time is indi- 
cated by the Verb, and may be Present, Past, or Future, 



PABTICIPLES— CLASSES. 123 

Examples. — Present. — I am writing letters. 
Past. — I was wilting letters. 
Future. — I shall be writing letters. 

Def. 137.— A Past Participle is the Participle that is 
regularly formed by adding ed to the root of its Verb. 

Examples.— Lovetf— feared— hatetf— respects. 

Obs. 1. — The Past Participles of Irregular Verbs are variously 
formed. [See List] 

Obs. 2. — The Past Participle may be used with a Verb indicating 
time, Present, Past, or Future. 

Examples.— Present.— I am loved William is seen. 

Past. — I was loved William was seen. 

Future.— I shall be loved William will be seen. 

Obs. 3. — The Present Participle is commonly Active in signifi- 
cation. 

Examples.— 1. A falling leaf.— 2. A fading flower. 

3. " Scaling yonder peak, 

I saw an eagle, wheeling near its brow." 

Obs. 4. — The Past Participle is commonly Passive in signification. 
Examples.—!. Injured reputation. — 2. Lost opportunity. 
3. rt Truth crushed to earth, will rise again.'" 

Obs. 5. — A Past Participle, preceded by the Auxiliary having, is 
used actively. 

Examples.— 1. Having loved— 2. Having lost a day. 

3. " The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises. 1 ' 

4. Having seen the elephant, the rustic was satisfied. 

Obs. 6. — Preceded by the Auxiliary being, or having been, the Past 
Participle is used passively. 
Examples.— 1. Being loved. 

2. Having been censured for idleness, John resolved to be 
diligent. 

Rem. — The above and similar combinations of the Present Par- 
ticiple with the Past, indicate Prior Present Tense. Hence, 

Def. 138. — A Prior Present Participle is a Par- 
ticiple compounded of a Present and a Past Participle. 

Obs. 7. — A Compound Participle may be Present or Prior Present 
— Active or Passive. 



124 ENGLISH QBAMMAB—PART II 

Examples. — Present. — Being loved Being seen. 

Prior Present. — Having loved Having seen. 

Active. \ Havin g loved Having seen. 

' ( Having been loving Having been seeing. 

Passive. \ Being loved Being tfeen * 

' ' 1 Having been loved . . Having been seen. 

Obs. 8. — The term Participle is given to these words because they 
participate in the offices of two " parts of speech" at the same time :— - 
that of the Verbs from which they are derived, and also of Nouns, of 
Adjectives, of Adverbs, of Prepositions, of Conjunctions — in Predicate 
with Auxiliary Verbs, or to introduce Participial Phrases. 

Examples. 

1. Noun (a.) Singing is a pleasing exercise. 

(ft.) William maintains a fair standing in society. 
(c.) " In the beginning, God created the heaven. 1 ' 

2. Adjective (d.) A running brook— a standing tree. 

(e.) Behold the goose standing on one foot. 

3. Adverb (/.) u 1r Tis strange ; 'tis passing strange. 1 ' • 

(g.) The task was exceedingly difficult. 

4. Preposition (h.) " I speak concerning Christ and the Church." 

(i.) " Nothing was said touching that question. 1 ' 

5. Conjunction (k.) "Seeing we can not agree, the discussion may be 

stopped." 

6. Exclamation Q.) Shocking ! Astonishing! 

7. In Predicate (m.) " Birds are singing — bees are humming." 

8. Leader of Phrase, in.) Wounding the feelings of others. 

(e>.) "Avoid wounding the feelings of others." 
(p.) A habit of moving quickly, is another way of gain- 
ing time. 

Obs. 9. — Participles, like the Verbs from which they are derived, 
are Transitive or Intransitive. 

Def. 139. — A Transitive Participle is a Participle 
that has an Object. 

Example.— "Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle 
Wheeling near its brow." 

Def. 14Q. — An Intransitive Participle is a Partici- 
ple that has no Object. 

Example.—" I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow." 

Obs. 10. — A Participle used as a Preposition, must be Transitive. 
Example.— u I speak concerning Christ and the Church." 



PARTICIPLES. 



125 



Obs. 11— A Participle used as a Noun, as an Adjective, or in 
Predicate, or as the Leader of a Participial Phrase, may be Intran- 
sitive or Transitive. 

Examples. 

(a.) Intransitive. 

l m xfoun " Scolding has long been considered ungenteel." 

2 * Adjective tw The curfew tolls the knell of parting day." 

3. In Predicate. . ." Spring-time of year is coming." 

(&.) Transitive. 

4. Substantive.. . . Teaching Clara, is a pleasing occupation. 

5. Adjective " Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle." 

6. In Predicate. . .We are studying grammar. 

Obs. 12.— A Participle used as a Conjunction or as an Adverb 
must be Intransitive. 

Examples.— 1. " Wherefore is there a price in the hands of a fool to get wis- 
dom, seeing he hath no heart to it." 
2. " A virtuous household, but exceeding poor." 

Questions for Review. 

121. What is a Participle ? Give Examples See Def. 133. 

What sort of Words are Participles ? 

Wherein do they resemble Verbs ? See Obs. 

Wherein do they differ from their Verbs ? See Obs. 

How many sorts of Participles ? See Prin. 

122. What is a Simple Participle ? Give Examples . See Def. 134. 
What is a Compound Participle? Give Ex- 
amples See Def.- 135. 

In Tenses, how are Participles distinguished ?.. .See Prin. 
What is a Present Participle ? Give Examples . See Def. 136. 

123. What is a Past Participle ? Give Examples. . .See Def. 137. 
' Which Participle is generally Active in its signi- 
fication? . ...See Obs. 3. 

Which Participle is generally Passive in signifi- 
cation? ! ee ^ s -f- 

When may a Past Participle be used Actively ?. See Obs. 5. 
What is a Prior Present Participle? Give 

Examples - See Def - 138 ' 

124 For what Parts of Speech may Participles be 

used? - SeeObs.8. 

Make a Sentence having a Participle for its Subject. 
u « " " " Object 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

PAGE 

124. Make a Sentence having a Participle as an Adjective. 

I " t " " Admrh ' 

as a Preposition. 

" Conjunction. 

in Predicate. 

Phrase u " as its X^^r. 

" Subsequent. 

125. With respect to Objects, how are Participles dis- 

tinguished ? See Obs. 9. 

What is a Transitive Participle ? Give Ex See Def. 139. 

What is an Intransitive Participle ? Give Ex. . See Def. 140. 

What Participles must be Transitive f See Obs. 10. 

may be Transitive or Intran- 
sitive? See Obs. 11. 

What Participles must be Intransitive? See Obs. 12. 

Tense. 

Hem— Generally the form of the Verb denotes not only the man- 
ner, but also the time, of the action or event expressed by it. Hence 
the distinction of Tense. 

■ Def. 141.— Tense is a modification of Verbs, denoting 
distinction of time. 

Kem.— Time is Present, Past, or Future: of each of these periods 
we have two varieties, represented by different forms. Hence, 



Most Verbs have six 



The Prior Past Tense, 

The Past Tense, 

j The Prior Present Tense, 

Tenses j The Present Tense, 

The Prior Future Tense, 
[ The Future Tense. 



Def. 142.— The Prior Past Tense denotes time 
past at some other past time mentioned, or implied. 

Example.— I had already expressed my opinion. 

Obs. I.— Had, prefixed to a Participle, is usually the sign of this 
Tense,— A Past Verb prefixed to a Past Participle. 

Obs. 2.— This Tense is called Prior Past, because it represents an 
action or event as occurring at a time prior to another past time 
mentioned or implied. 



VERBS— TENSE. 127 

Def." 143.— A Verb in the Past Tense denotes time 
fully past. 

Examples.— I wrote you a letter.— We walked to Troy 
I saw an eagle.— David loved Jonathan. 

Obs— In Regular Verbs, the sign of tliis Tense is d or ed added 
to the root of the Verb. 
In Irregular Verbs, a distinct form is used. [See List.] 

Def. 144.— The Prior Present Tense denotes time 
past, but in a period reaching to the present . 

Examples.— I have completed my task.— John has returned. 

Mary has been prospered— -Thou hast destroyed thyself. 

Obs. I— Have, hast, and has, are the signs of this Tense,— A 
Present Verb prefixed to a Past Participle. 

q bs> 2.— This Tense is called Prior Present, because it represents 
an action or event as occurring at a time prior to the present, yet 
in a period reaching to the present. 

Def. 145.— The Present Tense denotes time present 

Examples.— Eliza studies.— Ellen is reading.— Clara can sing. 

Bo you hear that "bell ?— Emily may write that diagram. 

Obs. 1.— This is the simplest form of the Verb— the sign do is 
used to denote intensity, and in asking questions. 
Obs. 2. — Present Tense may be — 

1. Definite— as, I am writing.— William studies 

2. Indefinite — as, Virtue is commendable. 

D EF . 146.— The Prior Future Tense denotes time 
past, as compared with some future time specified. 

Example.— We shall have finished this recitation before the next class will 
come. 

Obs. 1.— Shall hate and ic ill have, are the signs of this Tense- 
Verbs of Future Tense prefixed to a Past Participle. 

Obs. 2.— This Tense is named Prior Future, because it represents 
an action or event as having occurred at a time prior to some fu- 
ture time expressed or implied. 

Def. 147.— The Future Tense denotes future time, 
as compared with the present. 

Example.— James will return to-morrow— I shall see him. 



128 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 



OBB.—Shda % in the First Person, and will, in the Second and 
Third, are the signs of this Tense. 

Rem.— Distinctions of time are not indicated with precision by 
the form of the Verb. This must be done by the use of Adjuncts 

In the Potential Mode the Tenses are quite Indefinite-one form 
being often used for another. [See p. ggg.] 

The same remarks will apply to Participles-to the Infinitive to 
the Subjunctive, and sometimes to the Indicative Mode. 



Recapitulation. 

Voice. M oae , 

" Indicative . 



VERB, 



f Active. . 

. -I Passive. 

t Neuter 



Potential . 



Tense. 
Prior Past, 

Past, 
Prior Present, 

Present, 
Prior Future, 

Future. 

Prior Past, 
Past, 
i Prior Present, 
I Present. 



Subjunctive \ Past, 

/ Present. 



Imperative . 



Infinitive. 



Present. 

Prior Present, 
Present. 



( Past > 

I Participle 1 Prior Present, 

( Present. 

Questions for Review. 

PAGE 

126. What is Tense.?.. See Def. 141 

What natural divisions of time ? See Rem 

How many forms for each division ? 

How many Tenses have most English Verbs ? 

Name the Tenses in their natural order. 

When is a Verb in the Prior Past Tense ? See Def. 142 

What Auxiliary Verb is used as the sign of this 

Tense? SeeObs 1 

Why is this Tense named Prior Past ? See Obs 2 






VERBS— TENSE. 129 

PAGE 

127. When is a Verb in the Past Tense ? See Def. 143. 

In Regular Verbs, how is this Tense formed ? . . . See Obs. 

In Irregular Verbs, how is this Tense formed ? 

When is a Verb in the Prior Present Tense ?. .See Def. 144. 

Why is this Tense named Prior Present ? See Obs. 2. 

What Auxiliary Verbs are the signs of this 

Tense ? See Obs. 1. 

When is a Verb in the Present Tense ? See Def. 145. 

What Auxiliary may a Verb in this Tense have ? . See Obs. 1. 
How make this Tense Definite? — How Indefi- 
nite ? See Obs. 2. 

When is a Verb in the Prior Future Tense ?.. .See Def. 146. 

Why is this Tense named Prior Future ? 

What Auxiliary Verbs are used as the signs of 

this Tense ? See Obs. 1. 

When is a Verb in the Future Tense ? See Def. 147. 

128. What Auxiliary Verbs are signs of this Tense ? .See Obs. 
Do the forms of Verbs always indicate distinc- 
tions of time with precision ? See Eem. 

By what means can we make distinctions of time 

more definite ? See Rem. 



Exercises. 

Jg|r Let each Verb and Participle in the following Exercises be 
pointed out, and its Class and Modification given. 



7. Willing to be taught. 

8. Having seen the teacher. 

9. Retire. 

10. Let us alone. 

11. Permit me to pass. 

12. Let me 2:0. 



1. I wrote. 

2. Thou art reading. 

3. James may recite. 

4. Mary can study. 

5. Joining the multitude. 

6. Accustomed to study. 

13. It is pleasant to ride in a sail-boat. 

14. We are all foud of singing. 

15. Some are accustomed to sing by note. 

16. The young ladies ought to have attended the lecture. 

17. By teaching others, we improve ourselves. 

18. Being accustomed to study, we can learn that lesson easily. 

19. Having been censured for idleness, John has resolved to be 

diligent. 

20. By endeavoring to please all, we fail to please any. 



130 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II 



" Truth crushed to earth, will rise again ; 
The eternal years of God are hers : 
But Error, wounded, writhes in pain, 
And dies amid her worshippers." 

Let the Verbs and Participles on this and the preceding page be 
parsed according to the following 

Model. 

Crushed is [a Participle, from the Verb crush;'] used here to 

describe a condition of " Truth ;" hence, a Verbal 
Adjective. 

Will rise asserts an act of " Truth ;" hence, a Verb. 

has no object; hence, Intransitive. 

" simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode. 

" denotes time future ; hence, Future Tense. 

Are asserts being of " years ;" hence, a Verb. 

lias no object ; hence, Intransitive. 

' simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode. 

denotes time present ; hence, Present Tense. 

Wounded.. . .is [a Participle, from the Verb wound;] used here to 
describe a condition of " Error ;" hence a Verbal Ad- 
jective. 

Writhes asserts an act of " Error ;" hence, a Verb. , 

has no object ; hence, Intransitive. 

simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode. 

denotes time present ; hence, Present Tense. 

" The surging billows and the gamboling storms 
Come crouching to his feet." 

Surging is [a Participle, from the Verb surge;] used here to 

describe " billows ;" hence, a Verbal Adjective. 
Gamboling . .is [a Participle, from the Verb gambol;] used here to 
describe " storms ;" hence, a Verbal Adjective. 

Come asserts an act of " billows" and " storms ;" hence, a 

Verb. 

has no object ; hence, Intransitive. 

" simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode. 

denotes time present ; hence, Present Tense. 

Crouching. . .is [a Participle, from the Verb crouch;] used here to 
modify the act expressed by " come ;" 
... (it declares the manner of coming ;) hence, an Adverb 
by representation. [See p. 159, Obs. 2.] 






VERBS— CONJUGATION. 131 

" In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth." 

Beginning. . .is [a Participle, from the Verb begin;] used here as 

the name of an event ; hence, a Verbal Noun. 
Created asserts an act of " God;" hence, a Verb. 

act passes to objects (heaven and earth) — Transitive. 

simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode. 

denotes a particular time past ; hence, Past Tense. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

Rem. — "We have seen that most Verbs are varied in form to de- 
note different modes and times of action or being. They are also 
varied to agree with their subjects in Person and Number. 

Def. 148. — The regular arrangement of the various 
forms of a Verb is called its Conjugation. 

The Principal Parts of Verbs. 

Def. 149. — The Principal Parts of a Verb are those 
Eadical forms from which the other forms are derived. 

Obs. — These forms are used in the 

Present Tense, Past Tense, Present Tense, Past Tense, 

Am, was, Recite, recited, 

Love, love$, See, saw, 

and, together with the Simple Participles, constitute the 

Bases of Conjugation. 
Rem. — We have seen [See Part I., p. 31] — 

1. That the Predicate of a Sentence must have at least one 

Finite Verb. 

2. That it may have other Words. 

3. That in Predicates formed of more than one Word, the 

last Word constitutes the Principal Part of the Predi- 
cate, i. e., makes the Principal Assertion. 

4. That the Principal Part of a Predicate may be — 

A Verb. — I love, — I do see. 

A Participle. — I am loved. — I have seen. 

An Adjective. — John is weary. — Velvet feels smooth. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II 

A Noun. — "We are friends. — He is a scholar. 
& Pronoun. — It is I. — Thine is the kingdom. 
5. That the Words prefixed to the Principal Part are Aux- 
iliaries, and may be Verbs only, or Yerbs and Participles. 
Hence, 

Obs. 1. — Yerbs are conjugated — 

1. By inflections of their Radicals, and 

2. By the use of Auxiliary Yerbs. 

Obs. 2. — Auxiliaries perform peculiar offices, thus, 

Be, with its various modifications, is used before a Past Par- 
ticiple to indicate the Passive Voice. 
Examples. — 1. Clara was instructed. 

2. Anna has been complimented. 

Can, may, must, shall (used to command), and will (signifying 
volition), indicate the Present Tense of the Potential Mode. 

Could, might, should, and would, are the signs of the Past 
Tense Potential. 

Present Tense, Indicative-intensive form. I do see. 
Past Tense, " '• " I did see. 

Prior Present Tense, Indicative. I have seen. 

Prior Past Tense, " IAa^seen. 

Prior Present Tense, Potential. I may have seen . 

Prior Past Tense, " I might have seen. 

Future Indicative* {First Person). I shall see. 

Future Indicative* {Second or Third Person.) You will see. 

* The Future and the Prior Future Tenses are placed in the Indicative Mode, 
in conformity to the general custom of grammarians. A strict regard to uni- 
formity and consistency would place them with their kindred forms in the Po- 
tential Mode. For, 

The ' k Indicative Mode is that form of the Verb used to indicate or assert an 
act, being, or state. 1 ' Now a thing future may be predicted, but can not be de- 
clared or asserted. We may declare a purpose or make a prediction. So may 
we declare the possibility of an act, or the obligation to perform an act. But 
these are done by a modification of the Predicate, called Potential Mode. 

In the Sentence " I shall go," we have asserted a prediction of an act. 
" " " I may go," we have asserted a probability of an act. 

" " " I can go," we have asserted a possibility of an act. 

" I should go," asserts obligation to perform an act. 

" I might go," asserts liberty to perform an act. 

" I could go," asserts power to perform an act. 

Neither of the above assertions declares the performance of an act. They as- 
sert kt probability, poiver, will, or obligation," but no actual event. 

The Potential Present and Past alike assert a present probability, prediction, 
possibility, etc.. of a future act or event. 



Do 


M 


Bid 


f- 


Have 


r. 


Had 


"t 


May have 1 




Might have 


■Jl 


Shall 




Will 


I - 



VEBBS— CONJUGA TIOK ' 



133 



Exercises 
Showing the peculiar uses of Auxiliary Verbs. 



(1.) 






Subject. 



1 

Person. 










Predicate. 




Auxiliaries. Principal. 


2 


3 


4 


5 


Mode. 


Tense. 


Voice. 




f 




am 


acting. 




have 


been 








was 


reading. 


shall 


had 


been 
be 


studying. 


shall 


have 


been 


singing. 


may 




be 




may 


have 


been 


talking. 


might 




be 




might 


have 
(2.) 


been 


fretting. 


r 




is 


admitted. 


. 


has 


been 








was 


called. 


will 


had 


been 
be 


hated. 


will 


have 


been 


loved. 


may 




be 




may 


have 


been 


noticed. 


might 




be 




might 


have 


been 


punished. 



John. 



Let the Pupil substitute for the Word " John" the following 
Subjects, and notice what changes in the various Auxiliary Verbs 
must consequently be made. Thus, 

I requires (am— have— shall— shall have.) 

Thou " (art— hast— hadst— wilt— mayst— mightst.) 

They " (are — have.) 

People " (are — have.) 

He " (is— has— will— will have.) 

• Hence, 

BS . — The practical object of the following Paradigms is to teach 
the Pupil what are the various changes in the form of the Predicate 
to correspond to the Subject, and to indicate the various Modes, 
Tenses, Persons, and Numbers. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART II. 

Paeadigm of the Ikeegular Verb "Be." 

Verb. Participle. 

Present. — Am or be being. 

Past. — Was been. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

First Person I am. We are, 

Second " -S Thou art > \ Ye are ' 

becona ( You are, \ You are, 

Third " He is, They are. 

Prior Present Tense. 
1. I have been, We have been, 

2 j Thou hast been, j Ye have been, 

' ( You have been, ( You have been, 

3. He has been, They have been. 

Past Tense. 
1. I was, We were, 

2 j Thou wast, j Ye were, 

• \ You was* or were, \ You were, 

3. He was, They were. 

Prior Past Tense. 
1. I had been, We had been, 

2 \ Thou hadst been, j Ye had been, 

' \ You had been, \ You had been, 

3. He had been, They had been 

Future Tense. 
1. I shall be, We shall be, 

2 j Thou wilt be, j Ye will be, 

' \ You will be, ( You will be, 

3. He will be, They will be. 

Prior Future Tense. 
1. I shall have been, We shall have been, 

o j Thou wilt have been, j Ye will have been, 

' \ You will have been, ( You will have been, 

3. He will have been, They will have been. 

* The word you— originally Plural— is now used as Singular or Plural. Some 
Grammarians insist that " you, though applied to a single person, requires a Plu- 
ral Verb ; as, you were, not you was." (See Buchanan's Gr. , p. 37 ; Brown's, p. 528.) 

Other authors insist that " the Verb must follow the Nominative— if that de- 
notes unity, so does the Verb."— " Why was you glad?" (See Frazee's Gram- 
mar, p. 52 ; Webster's Grammar, p. 25.) 

In practice, our best British and American writers disagree, as do the Gram- 
marians. 



IRREGULAR VERBS— PARADIGM. 135 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be, We may be, 

o j Thou mayst be, j Ye may be, 

* ( You ma?/ be, \ You mg be, 
3. He may be, They ma?/ be. 

Prior Present Tense. 
1. I may haw been, We may have been, 

o j Thou mayst have been, j Ye may have been, 

( You may have been, '( You may have been, 

3. He may have been, They may have been. 

Past Tense. 
1. I might be, We might be, 

2 j Thou mightst be, ( Ye ma^Atf be, 

' ( You might be, \ You m^£ be, 

3. He might be, They might be. 

Prior Past Tense. 
1. I might have been, We might have been, 

o j Thou mightst have been, j Ye m^£ Aa^ be^/z, 

* ( You might have been, \ You might have been, 
3. He might have been, They might have been, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 
1. If I be, Ifwebe ; 

o ( If thou be, ( If ye be, 

* ( If you be, ( If you be, 
3. If he be, If they be. 

Past Tense. 
1. If I were, If we were, 

o j If thou wert, j If ye were, 

' ( If you were, . ( If you were, 

3. If he were, If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense, 
2 ( Be thou, or j Be ye, or Do ye be, 

( Do thou be, ( Be you, or Do you be, 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense To be. 

Prior Present Tense To have been. 

Pakticiples. 

Present Being. 

Past Been. 

Prior Present. .Having been. 



136 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 



Formulae of Regular Verbs. 

Transitive Verb — "Recite." 

Active Voice. 

The Principal Parts of this Verb are — 

Verb. Participle. 

Present Tense Recite Reciting. 

Past Tense Recited Recited. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 



Present Tense. 
Simple Form. Progressive Form. 



1. I recite, 

o j Thou recited, 

( You recite, 
3. He recites, 



1. We recite, 
2 j Ye recite, 

' \ You recite, 
3. They recite, 



Singular. 



Plural. 



I am reciting, 
j Thou art reciting, 
I You are reciting, 

He is reciting. 



We are reciting, 
Ye are reciting, 
You are reciting, 
They are reciting. 



Prior Present Tense. 

Singular. 



1. I haw recited, 
2 j Thou hast recite, 
' ( You have recited, 
3. He has recited, 



I have been reciting, 
Thou hast been reciting, 
You have been reciting, 
He has been reciting. 



Plural. 



1. We have recited, 
o j Ye have recited, 

' ( You have recited, 
3. They have recited, 



We have been reciting, 
j Ye have been reciting, 
I You have been reciting, 

They have been reciting. 



VERBS— CONJUGATION. 



137 



Past Tense. 

Singular. 



1. I recited, 

2 j Thou recited^, 

( You recite, 
3. He recited, 

1. We recite, 
2 j Ye recite, 

( You recited, 
3. They recited, 



Plural. 



I was reciting, 
f Thou wast reciting , 
| You was or were reciting, 
' He was reciting. 

We were reciting, 
( Ye were reciting, 
| You were reciting, 

They were reciting. 



Prior Past Tense. 



I had recited, 
Thou hadst recited, 



Singular. 



( You had recited, 
3. He had recited, 



1. We had recited, 
9 j Ye had recited, 
F ( You had recited, 
3. They had recited, 



1. I shall recite, 
9 j Thou wilt recite, 
f; l You will recite, 
3. He will recite, 



1. We shall recite, 
9 j Ye will recite, 
f ( You will recite, 
3. They will recite, 



Plural. 



I had been reciting, 
( Thou hadst been reciti?ig, 
} You had been reciting, 

He had been reciting. 

We had been reciting, 
Ye had been reciting, 
You 7*ad been reciting, 
They 7*ad &?#?^ reciting. 



Future Tense. 



Singular. 



Plural, 



I shall be reciting, . 

j Thou fttfft fo recitm^ 

\ You will be reciting, 

He trill be reciting. 

We shall be reciting, 
j Ye will be reciting, 
\ You will be reciting, 

They «rc7Z be reciting. 



Prior Future Tense. 



1. I shall have recited, 

j Thou wilt have -recited, 
r ( You «m7Z te recited, 
3. He will have recited, 

1. We shall have recited, 
( Ye will have recited, 
( You trill have recited, 

3. They will have recited, 



Singular. 



Plural. 



I shall have been reciting, 
Thou wilt have been reciting, 
You will have been reciting, 
He will have been reciting. 

We shall have been reciting, 
Ye will have been reciting, 
You will have been reciting, 
They trill have been reciting. 



138 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



1. I may recite, 

o ( Thou mayst recite, 

' \ You may recite, 
3. He may recite, 

1. We may recite, 
o j Ye may recite, 

3. 



Present Tense. 

Singular. 

I may be reciting, 
Thou mayst be reciting, 
You may be reciting, 
He may be reciting. 



i; 



You may recite, 
They may recite, 



Plural. 

We may be reciting, 
j Ye may be reciting, 
\ You may be reciting, 

They may be reciting 



Prior Present Tense. 
Singular. 
1. I may have recited, I may have been reciting, 

o ( Thou mayst have recited, ( Thou mayst have been reciting, 

' ( You may have recited, ( You may have been reciting, 

3. He may have recited, He may have been reciting. 



•; 



We may have recited, 
Ye may have recited, 
You may have recited, 
They may have recited, 



Plural. 

We may have been reciting 
j Ye may have been reciting, 
I You may have been reciting, 
They may have been reciting. 



1. I might recite, 
Thou mightst r 
You might recite, 



( Thou mightst recite 



3. He might recite, 

1. We might recite, 
2 j Ye might recite, 

\ You might recite, 
3. They might recite, 



Past Tense. 

Singular. 

I might be reciting, 
j Thou mightst be reciting, 
( You might be reciting, 
He might be reciting. 

Plural. 

We might be reciting, 
( Ye might be reciting, 
( You might be reciting, 

They might be reciting. 



I might have recited, 
j Thou mightst have recited, 
( You might have recited, 

He might have recited, 



Prior Past Tense. 
Singular. 



I might have been reciting, 
( Thou mightst have been reciting, 
\ You might have been reciting, 

He might have been reciting. 



We might have recited, 
( Ye might have recited, 
( You might have recited, 

They might have recited, 



Plural. 

We might have been reciting, 
j Ye might have been reciting, 
\ You might have been reciting, 

They might have been reciting. 



VERBS— CON JUG A TIOK 



139 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 



1. If I recite, 
o j If thou recite, 
* ( If you recite, 
3. If lie recite, 

1. If we recite, 
o j If y e recite, 

' \ If you recite, 
3. If they recite, 



Singular. 

If I be reciting, 
j If thou be reciting, 
( If you be reciting, 
If he be reciting. 

Plural. 

If we be reciting, 
j If ye be reciting, 
( If you be reciting, 
If they be reciting. 



Past Tense. 

Singular. 
1. Though I recite, Though I were reciting, 

o j Though thou recite, j Though thou wert reciting, 



( Though you recited, 
'6. Though he recited, 

1. Though we recited, 
2 j Though ye recited, 

' ( Though you recited, 
3. Though they recited, 



( Though you were reciting, 
Though he were reciting. 

Plural. 

Though we were reciting, 
j Though ye were reciting, 
( Though you were reciting, 
Though they were reciting. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



2 j Recite thou, or 
I Bo thou recite, 



Present Tense. 

Singular. 



j Be thou reciting, or 

1 ~ 



Bo thou be recitm^. 

Plural. 
2 j Recite ye or you, or j Be ye reciting, or 

'\Boje ot you recite, ( Bo ye be reciting. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 



To recite, 

To have recited, 



Raving recited, 



Present. 

To be reciting. 

Prior Present. 

To have been reciting. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. 

Recitm^. 

Prior Present. 

Having been reciting. 



140 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART II 



Paradigm of the Verb "Love." 

Passive Yoice. 

Iioved. Loved, 



Active Voice. 

iiove. Loving 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



1. I love, 

o j Thou lovest, 

( You love, 
3. He loves, 

1. We love, 
2 j Ye love, 

( You love, 
3. They love, 



Present Tense. 

Singular. 



Plural. 



I am loved, 
j Thou art loved, 
j You are loved, 

He is loved 

We are loved, 
i Ye are loved, 
| You are loved, 
k They are loved. 



Prior Present Tense. 



1. I ham loved, 
2 j Thou hast loved, 
I You have loved, 
3. He has loved, 

1. We have loved, 
2 j Ye have loved, 

( You have loved, 
3. They have loved, 



1. I loved, 

2 j Thou loved^, 

( You loved, 
3. He loved, 

1. We loved, 
o j Ye loved, 

| You loved, 
3. They loved, 



1. I had loved, 



2. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Past Tense. 

Singular. 



Plural. 



I have been loved, 
i Thou hast been loved, 
| You have been loved, 

He has been loved. 

We have been loved, 
j Ye have been loved, 
( You have been loved, 

They have been loved. 



I was loved, 
i Thou wast loved, 
| You was or were loved, 

He icas loved. 

We were loved, 
> Ye were loved, 
[ You were loved, 

They were loved. 



Prior Past Tense. 



Singular. 



( Thou hadst loved, 



( You had loved, 
3. He had loved, 



I had been loved, 
j Thou hadst been loved, 
( You had been loved, 

He had been loved. 



VERBS- CONJUGA TION. 



141 



1. We had loved, 
2 j Ye had loved, 

j You had loved, 
3. They Aad loved, 



1. I shall love, 
9 j Thou waft love, 
( You weft love, 
3. He will love, 



Plural. 



We had been loved, 
j Ye had been loved, 
( You had been loved, 

They had been loved. 



Future Tense. 



Singular 



I shall be loved, 
j Thou wilt be loved, 
( You will be loved, 

He will be loved. 



1. We shall love, 
9 j Ye will love, 

( You will love, 
3. They will love, 



Plural. 



We shall be loved, 
j Ye will be loved, 
I You will be loved, 

They will be loved. 



Prior Future Tense. 



1. I shall have loved, 
E j Thou araft have loved, 
( You tc#Z have loved, 
3. He w#£ have loved, 



Singular. 



I sft«W have been loved, 
( Thou wilt have been loved, 
( You will have been loved, 

He wilt have been loved. 



1. We shall have loved, 
o j Ye will luive loved, 

( You will have loved, 
3. They will have loved, 



Plural. 



We shall have been loved, 
j Ye will have been loved, 
( You will have been loved, 

They will have been loved. 






POTENTIAL MODE. 



Present Tense. 



1. I may love, 

o j Thou mayst love, 

( You may love, 
3. He may love, 

1. We may love, 
2 j Ye may love, 

( You may love, 
3. They may love, 



Singular. 



I may be loved, 
j Thou mayst be loved, 
( You may be loved, 

He may be loved. 



Plural. 



We may be loved ; 
j Ye may be loved, 
( You may be loved, 

They may be loved. 



142 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II 



Prior Present Tense. 

Singular. 
1. I may have loved, I may have been loved, 

2 j Thou mayst have loved, j Thou mayst have been loved, 

' ( You may have loved, ( You may have been loved, 

3. He may have loved, He may have been loved. 



1. We may have loved, 
o j Ye may have loved, 

' ( You may have loved, 
3. They may have loved, 



1. I might love, 

o j Thou mighist love 

' ( You might love, 
3. He might love, 

1. We might love, 
2 j Ye might love, 

' ( You might love, 
3. They might love, 



Plural. 

We may have been loved, 
j Ye may have been loved, 
\ You may have been loved, 

They may have been loved. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. 

I might be loved, 
j Thou mightst be loved, 
( You might be loved, 
He might be loved. 

Plural. 

We might be loved, 
( Ye might be loved, 
( You might be loved, 

They might be loved. 



Prior Past Tense. 

Singular. 
1. I might have loved, I might have been loved, 

2 j Thou mightst have loved, j Thou mightst have been loved, 

3. 



3-1 ' 

( You might have loved, 

He might have loved, 



y 

\ You might have been loved, 
He might have been loved. 



1. We might have loved, 
j Ye might have loved, 
' ( You might have loved, 
3. They might have loved, 



2, 



Plural. 

We might have been loved, 
j Ye might have been loved, 
( You might have been loved, 
They might have been loved. 



1. If I love, 
( If thou love, 



3. 



? you love, 
If he love, 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. 

If I be loved, 
j If thou be loved, 
\ If you be loved, 

If he be loved. 



VERBS— CONJ TJQA TIOK 



143 



1. If we love, 
o j If ye love, 

' \ If you love, 
3. If they love, 



1. If I loved, 
o j If thou loved, 
{ If you loved, 
3. If he loved, 

1. If we loved, 
o j If ye loved, 

* ( If you loved, 
3. If they loved, 



Plural. 



If we be loved, 
j If ye be loved, 
\ If you be loved, 

If they be loved. 



Past Tense. 



Singular. 



If I were loved, 
j If thou wert loved, 
( If you were loved, 

If he were loved. 



Plural. 



If we were loved, 
I If ye were loved, 
[ If you were loved, 

If they were loved. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



'■{ 



Love thou, or 
Bo thou love. 



Present Tense. 

Singular. 



j Be loved, or 



2 j Love ye, or 
'(Bo ye love. 



Plural. 



Bo thou be love*?. 



j Be ye loved, or 
( Bo ye be loved. 



To love. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

To be loved. 



Prior Present Tense. 



To have loved. 



To have been loved. 



LoYing. 
Having loved. 



PARTICIPLES. 
Present. 



Being loved. 



Prior Present. 



Past. 
Loved. 



Having been loved. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II 

Synopsis op the Verb " Study." 
Active Yoice. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

First Person. 

Declarative Form. Declarative Form— Negative. 

Present I study I study not, or I do not study. 

Prior Present. I have studied I have not studied. 

Past I studied , . I studied not, or I did not study. 

Prior Past I had studied I had not studied. 

Future I shall study I shall not study. 

Prior Future. .1 shall have studied. I shall not have studied. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present I may study I may not study. 

Prior Present. I may have studied. I may not have studied. 

Past I might study I might not study. 

Prior Past I might 7iave studied . I might not have studied. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present If I study If I study not 

Past If I studied If I studied not. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Second Person. 

Present Study, or ) ( Study not, or 

" Bo thou study, ) {Do not study. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present To study .Not to study. 

Prior Present. To have studied. . . .Not to have studied. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Simple Study ing Not studying, or studying not. 

Compound Having studied Not having studied. 



VERBS— CON JUG A TION. 145 

Synopsis of the Verb "Turn." 
Active Voice. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Declarative Form. Interrogative Form. 

Present I turn Do I turn ? 

Prior Present I have turn^c? Have I turned? 

Past I turned Did I turn ? 

Prior Past I had turned Had I turn^ ? 

Future I shall turn Shall I turn ? 

Prior Future I shall have turned. Shall I have turned f 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present I may turn May I turn ? 

Prior Present I may have turned May I have turned f 

Past I might turn Might I turn ? 

Prior Past I might have turned Might I have turn^c?. ? 



Synopsis of the Verb " Sell." 
Passive Voice. 

Sell. Sold. Selling. Sold* 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Third Person. 

Interrogative Form. Interrogative Form— Negative. 

Present Is it sold ? Is it not sold ? 

Prior Present . Has it been sold ? Has it not been sold ? 

Past Was it sold ? Was it not sold ? 

Prior Past Had it been sold? Had it not been sold? 

Future Will it be sold ? Will it not be sold ? 

Prior Future. . TW it have been sold ? . Will it 7i<?£ 7ia^ been sold? 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

2%mZ Person. 

Present May it be sold ? Jf&?/ it not be sold ? 

Prior Present . May it have been sold?. .May it not have been sold ? 

Past Might it be sold ? Might it ?z^ fo sold ? 

Prior Past Might it fawe foe/i sold ? . Might it ?w£ Aare faera sold ? 

* The Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive Modes are not used in 

Interrogative Sentences. 

7 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR—PART II. 

Paradigm of the Irregular Verb " See." 

See, Saw, Seeing, Seen, 

Declarative Form. Interrogative Form. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

1. I see, See I ? 

2 j Thou seest, j Seest thou ? 

( You see, ( See you ? 
3. He sees. Sees he ? 

Plural. 
1. We see, See we ? 

o j Ye see, j See ye ? 

\ You see, ( See you ? 
3. They see. See they ? 

Obs. — The above is the Simple form, which, in Interrogative 
Sentences, is not much used, the Intensive form being commonly 

employed. Thus, 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 

1. I do see, D^Isee? 

o j Thou dost see, j Dost thou see?- 

( You do see, ( Do you see ? 
3. He does see. Does he see ? 

Plural. 
1. We do see, Do we see ? 

o ( Ye do see, j Do ye see ? 

( You $? see, 1 Do you see ? 
3. They do see. D<? they see ? 

Prior Present Tense. e 

Singular. 
1. I have seen, Have I see^ ? 

o j Thou Aas£ see^, j Hast thou see?i ? 

" ( You have seen, ( Have you see?i ? 
3. He has seen. Has he seen ? 

Plural. 
1. We have seen. Have we see^ ? 

o j Ye have seen, j Zfetf ye seen ? 

* ( You have seen, ( Have you see?i ? 
3. They kw see?i. Have they seew ? 



VERBS— CONJUGATION. 



147 



Past Tense. — Simple Form. 



1. I saw, 

o j Thou s&west, 

' \ You saw, 
3. He saw. 



1. We saw, ' 
o j Ye saw, 

( You saw, 
3. They saw. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Saw I? 
j S&west thou 1 
( Saw you ? 

Saw he ? 

Saw we ? 
( Saw ye ? 
I Saw you ? 

Saw they ? 



Past Tense. — Intensive Form. 



1. 
3. 



I did see, 
Thou didst see, 
You did see, 
He did see. 



Singular. 



Bid I see ? 
D^tf thou see i 
Did you see ? 
D«Z he see ? 



1. We did see, 
o j Ye did see, 

( You efo'rf see, 
3. They did see. 



Plural. 



I Bid we see ? 
j jD«2 ye see V 
( ZH'd you see ? 
-Did! they see ? 



Prior Past Tense. 



1. I had seen, 

o j Thou hadst seen, 

' I You had seen, 
3. He had seen. 



Singular. 



Had I seeft ? 
j Hadst thou seett \ 
( Had you seeTi ? 

ifeZ he seeft ? 



1. We had seen, 

2 

3. 



Plural. 



2 j Ye had seen, 
' ( You had seen, 
They had seen. 



Had we see?i ? 
I ilad ye see ?i ? 
[ Had you seen ? 

J9M they see?i? 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



1. I can see, 

o j Thou c#tts£ see, 

' ( You can see, 
3. He can see. 



Present Tense. 

Singular. 



Can I see ? 
Ctettstf thou see ? 
Can you see ? 
Can he see ? 



143 



ENGLISH QBAMMAE—PABT II. 



1. We can see, 
2 J Ye can see, 

' | You can see, 
3. They can see. 



i; 



Plural. 



Can we see ? 
(7an ye see ? 
Can you see ? 
Cto they see ? 



Prior Present Tense. 



1 can have seen, 
2 \ Thou canst have seen, 

( You can have seen, 
3. He can have seen. 



1. We can have seen, 
o j Ye can have seen, 

\ You can have seen, 
3. They can have seen. 



Singular. 



Can I have seen ? 
j Canst thou 7ia^ seen \ 
\ Can you 7^^ seen ? 

(7an he 7iaw seen ? 

Plural. 

C^?i we have seen ? 
j Can ye have seen ? 
j (7a n you 7i6we seen ? 
Can they 7*az^ seen ? 



1. I could see, 

o j Thou couldst see, 

' ( You confcZ see, 
3. He could see. 



1. We could see, 
2 ( Ye could see, 

' \ You could see, 
3. They could see. 



Past Tense. 

Singular. 

Could I see ? 
j Couldst thou see 1 
J CWo* you see ? 
Could he see ? 



Plural. 



Could we see ? 
Could ye see ? 
CW&Z you see ? 
Cbwfc? they see ? 



Prior Past Tense. 



I could have seen, 
Thou couldst have seen, 
You ccnZo* have seen, 
He c<?n/a* 7*aw see^i. 



Singular. 



1. We could have seen, 
o j Ye could have seen, 

' ( You could have seen, 
3. They could have seen. 



Could I have seen? 
Couldst thou k«6 seen ? 
CWo* you have seen ? 
(7<?n&Z he have seen ? 



Plural. 



OnZo* we have seen ? 
j Could ye 7m^£ seen ? 
( Could you Aa^ seen ? 

CawZo* they 7mw6 seen? 



' Let the Pupil give the other Modes and Tenses of this Verl 
-referring to pp. 142-3 for corresponding declarative forms. 



VERBS— EXERCISES. 



149 



Exercises. 

(i.) 

Let the Pupils give the Class, Voice, Mode, Tense, Person, and 
Number of the following Verbs— and complete the Sentences : 



1. — am writing a letter, 

2. — are reading poetry. 

3. — didst see the eclipse. 

4. — had known duty. 

5. — may feel the worm. 

6. — ought to study. 

7.— couldst have favored him. 

8. — thou love me. 

17. — w 7 ilt have returned my books. 

18. — shall have returned from Europe. 

(n.) 

Repeat the First Person Singular of each Mode and Tense of 
the following Verbs : 



■couldst love to study. 
10. — has walked to Boston. 
11. — hast w r andered from home. 
12. — shall learn wisdom. 
13. — will improve in writing. 
14. — could recite lessons. 
15. — canst be false to any man. 
16. — wish to see home. 



Am, 

Arise, 

Begin, 

Blow, 

Come, 

Cut, 

Do, 

Drink, 



Eat, 

Fly, 

Go, 

Hold, 

Know, 

Lay, 

Lie, 

Make. 



Neglect, 

Need, 

Owe, 

Ought, 

Practice, 

Purchase, 

Quiet, 

Qualify, 



Repeat the Third Person Plural of the same. 

(ni.) 



Receive, 

Reject, 

Select, 

Squander, 

Yoke, 

Touch, 

Use, 

Wish. 



Let the appropriate Auxiliary Verbs be inserted in the blank 
spaces indicated. 

1. " Now the shades of night gone." 

2. " The bell's deep tones swelling." 

3. " The palace wrapped in flames." 

4. " How my heart encrusted with the world." 

5. " Everything in the life of such persons misplaced." 

6. " Science raise thee to eminence." 

7. " But I alone guide thee to felicity." 

8. " Ten years I allot to the attainment of knowledge." 

9. " A chieftain's vengeance thou feel." 

10. " The injuries of Fortune not affect the mind." 



150 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PAET II 



(iv.) 
Let two Auxiliary Verbs be inserted in the following Sentences ; 

1. John not gone to the river. 

2. We finished our task at five. 

3. The earth dissolved like snow. 

4. How we reconciled ? 

5. Who thought it ? 

6. You fatigued. 

7. He not frightened. 

8. You brought my letters. 

9. The boy been injured by it. 

10. No doctor made that man well. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Eem. — The following are the Irregular and the Kedtjndant 
Verbs of the English language. 



Present. 



Fast. 



Present. Participle. Past Participle. 



Abide abode, 

Am or be was, 

Arise arose, 

Awake. ..... .awoke or awaked, 

Bear bore or bare, 

Bear, to sus- I , . 

. . \ bore or bare, 

tain ) 

Beat beat, 

Begin began or begun, 

Behold beheld, 

Belay belayed or belaid, 

Bend bent or bended, 

Bereave bereft or bereaved, 

Beset ..beset, 

Beseech besought or beseechecL,* 

Bet bet or betted, 

Betide betided or betid,* 

Bid bade or bid, 

Bind bound, 

Bite bit, 

Bleed bled, 

Blend blended or blent, 

Bless .'. .blessed or blest, 

Blow blew or bio wed, 

Break broke, 

Breed bred, 

Bring brought, 



abiding abode or abided.* 

being been. 

arising arisen. 

awaking awoke or awaked. 

bearing born. 

bearing borne, 

beating beaten or beat. 

beginning begun. 

beholding beheld. 

belaying belayed or belaid. 

bending bent or bended. 

bereaving bereft or bereaved. 

besetting beset. 

beseeching besought or beseeched.* 

betting bet or betted.* 

betiding betided or betid. 

bidding bidden or bid. 

binding bound. 

biting bitten or bit. 

bleeding bled. 

blending blended or blent. 

blessing blessed or blest. 

blowing blowed or blown. 

breaking broken. 

breeding breed. 

bringing brought. 



* Obsolete forms. 



VERBS— IRREG ULAB. 



151 



Present. Past. 

Build built or builded,* 

Burn burned or burnt, 

Burst burst or bursted,* 

Buy bought, 

Cast cast, 

Catch caught or catched,* 

Chide chid, 

Choose chose. 

Cleave clove or cleft, 

Cleave cleaved or clave, 

Cling clung, 

Clothe clothed or clad, 

Come came, 

Cost cost, 

Creep crept or creeped,* 

Crow crowed or crew, 

Curse cursed or curst,* 

Cut cut, 

Dare dared or durst, 

Deal.. , dealt or dealed,* 

Dig dug or digged,* 

Dive dived or dove, 

Do did, 

Draw drew, 

Dream dreamed or dreamt, 

Dress dressed or drest, 

Drink drank, 

Drive drove, 

Dwell dwelt or dwelled,* 

Eat ate or eat,* 

Fall fell, 

Feed fed, 

Feel felt, 

Fight .fought, . 

Find found, 

Flee fled, 

Fling flung, 

Fly flew, 

Forbear forbore, 

Forget forgot or forgat, 

Forsake forsook, 

Freeze froze or freezed,* 

Geld gelded or gelt,* 

Get got or gat.* 

Gild gilded or gilt, 

Girt girded or girt, 

Give ^ave, 

Go went, 

Grave graved, 

Grind ground, 

Grow grew, 



Present Participle. Past Participle. 

building built or builded.* 

burning burned or burnt. 

bursting burst or bursted.* 

buying bought. 

casting cast. 

catching caught or catched.* 

chiding chidden or chid. 

choosing chosen. 

cleaving cloven or cleft, 

cleaving cleaved. 

clinging clung. 

clothing clothed or clad. 

coming come, 

costing cost. 

creeping crept or creeped.* 

crowing crowed. 

cursing cursed or curst.* 

cutting cut. 

daring . dared or durst. 

dealing dealt or dealed.* 

digging dug or digged.* 

diving dived or diven. 

doing done. 

drawing drawn. 

dreaming dreamed or dreamt. 

dressing dressed or drest. 

drinking drunk or drank. 

driving driven. 

dwelling dwelt or dwelled.* 

eating eaten or eat.* 

falling fallen. 

feeding fed. 

feeling felt. 

fighting fought. 

finding found. 

fleeing fled. 

flinging flung. 

flying flown. 

forbearing forborne. 

forgetting forgotten or forgot. 

forsaking forsaken. 

freezing frozen or freezed.* 

gelding gelded or gelt.* 

getting got or gotten.* 

gilding gilded or gilt. 

girding girded or girt. 

giving given. 

going gone. 

graving graved or graven. 

grinding ground. 

growing grown. 



152 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 



Present. Past. 

Hang.. . . . . . hung or hanged, 

Have had, 

Hear heard, 

Heave heaved or hove,* 

Hew ...hewed, 

Hide hid, 

Hit hit, 

Hold held, 

Hurt hurt, 

Keep kept, 

Kneel kneeled or knelt, 

Knit knit or knitted, 

Know knew, 

Lade laded, 

Lay laid or layed, 

Lead led, 

Lean leaned or leant, 

Leap leaped or leapt, 

Learn learned or learnt, 

Leave left, 

Lend lent, 

Let let, 

Lie lay, 

Light lighted or lit, 

Lose lost, 

Make made, 

Mean meant or meaned,* 

Meet met, 

Mow mowed, 

Mulct mulcted or mulct,* 

Outdo outdid, 

Pass passed or past, 

Pay paid or payed,* 

Pen .penned or pent,* 

Plead pled or pleaded. 

Prove proved, 

Put put, 

Quit quitted or quit, 

Pap rapped or rapt, 

Read read, 

Rend rent, 

Rid rid, 

Ride rode, 

Ring rung or rang, 

Rise rose, 

Rive rived, 

Roast roasted or roast, 

Rot rotted, 

Run ran or run. 

Saw sawed, 

Say said, 



Present Participle. Past Participle. 

hanging hung or hanged. 

having had. 

hearing heard. 

heaving heaved or hoven.* 

hewing hewed or hewn. 

hiding hidden or hid. 

hitting hit. 

holding held or holden.* 

hurting hurt. 

keeping kept. 

kneeling kneeled or knelt. 

knitting knit or knitted. 

knowing known. 

lading laded or laden. 

laying laid or layed.* 

leading led. 

leaning leaned or leant. 

leaping .leaped or leapt. 

learning .'. learned or learnt. 

leaving left. 

lending lent. 

letting let. 

lying lain. 

lighting lighted or lit. 

losing lost. 

making made. 

meaning meant or meaned.* 

meeting met. 

mowing mowed or mown. 

mulcting mulcted or mulct.* 

outdoing outdone. 

passing passed or past. 

paying paid or payed.* 

penning penned or pent.* 

pleading pled or pleaded. 

proving proved or proven. 

putting put. 

quitting quitted or quit. 

rapping rapped or rapt. 

reading read. 

rending rent. 

ridding rid. 

riding rode or ridden. 

ringing rung. 

rising risen. 

riving riven or rived. 

roasting roasted or roast. 

rotting rotten or rotted. 

running run. 

sawing sawn or sawed. 

saying said. 



VEBBS—IBBEG TJLAB. 



153 



Present. Past. 

See saw, 

Seek sought, 

Sell sold, 

Send ..sent, 

Set set, 

Shake shook or shaked,* 

Shape shaped, 

Shave shaved, 

Shear sheared, 

Shed shed, 

Shine shone or shined, 

Show showed, 

Shoe shod, 

Shoot shot, 

Shred shred, 

Shrink shrunk, 

Shut shut, 

Sing sung or sang, 

Sink sunk or sank, 

Sit sat, 

Slay slew, 

Sleep slept, 

Slide slid, 

Sling slung, 

Slink slunk, 

Slit.. slitted or slit, 

Smell smelled or smelt, 

Smite smote, 

Sow sowed, 

Speak spoke or spake, 

Speed .sped, 

Spell spelled or spelt, 

Spend spent, 

Spill spilled or spilt, 

Spin spun, 

Spit spit or spat,* 

Split split, 

Spoil spoiled or spoilt, 

Spread spread, 

Spring sprung or sprang, 

Stand stood, 

Stave stove or staved, 

Stay staid or stayed,* 

Steal stole, 

Stick stuck, 

Sting stung, 

Stink stunk or stank,* 

Stride strode or strid, 

Strike struck, 

String strung or stringed, 

Strive strove, 



Present Participle. Past Participle, 

seeing seen. 

seeking sought. 

selling. ....sold. 

sending sent. 

setting set. 

shaking shaken or shaked.* 

shaping shaped or shapen. 

shaving , shaved or shaven. 

shearing sheared or shorn. 

shedding shed. 

shining shined or shone. 

showing showed or shown. 

shoeing shod. 

shooting shot. 

shredding shred. 

shrinking shrunk. 

shutting. shut. 

singing. ... sung. 

sinking sunk. 

sitting sat. 

slaying slain. 

sleeping slept. 

sliding slidden or slid. 

slinging slung. 

slinking slunk. 

slitting slitted or slit. 

smelling smelled or smelt. 

smiting smitten or smit. 

sowing sowed or sown. 

speaking spoken. 

speeding sped. 

spelling spelled or spelt. 

spending spent. 

spilling spilled or spilt. 

spinning spun. 

spitting spit. 

splitting split. 

spoiling .... spoiled or spoilt. 

spreading spread. 

springing sprung. 

standing stood. 

staving stove or staved. 

staying staid or stayed.* 

stealing stolen. 

sticking stuck. 

stinging stung. 

stinking stunk. 

striding stridden. 

striking .... struck or stricken. 

stringing strung or stringed. 

striving striven. 



154 



ENGLISH GBAMMAB—PABT II 



Present. Past. 

Strow strowed, 

Swear swore, 

Sweat sweated or sweat 

Sweep swept, 

Swell swelled, 

Swim swam, 

Swing swung, 

Take took, 

Teach taught, 

Tear tore, 

Tell told, 

Think thought, 

Thrive thrived or throve, 

Throw threw or thro wed, 

Thrust thrust, 

Tread trod, 

Wake waked or woke, 

Wax waxed, 

Wear wore, 

Weave wove, 

Wed wedded or wed, 

Weep wept, 

Wet wet or wetted, ' 

Whet whetted or whet, 

Win won, 

Wind wound or winded,* 

Work worked or wrought, 

Wring wrung or wringed, 

Write wrote, 



Present Participle. Past Participle. 

strowing strowed or strown. 

swearing sworn. 

sweating sweated or sweat. 

sweeping swept. 

swelling swelled or swollen. 

swimming swam. 

swinging swung. 

taking taken. 

teaching taught. 

tearing torn. 

telling told. 

thinking thought. 

thriving thrived or thriven. 

throwing thrown or throwed, 

thrusting thrust. 

treading trodden or trod. 

waking waked or woke. 

•waxing waxed or waxen. 

wearing worn. 

weaving woven or wove. 

wedding wedded or wed. 

weeping wept. 

wetting wet or wetted. 

whetting whetted or whet. 

winning ..won. 

winding wound or winded. 

working worked or wrought. 

wringing wringed or wrung. 

writing written or writ. 



Obs. 1. — Words in the above list, marked with a (*), are not 
much used by modern writers. 

Obs. 2. — A Yerb often has a Preposition or other prefix placed 
before it; the conjugation, however, remains the same. 

Examples. 

Take took taken. 

.Mistake mistook mistaken. 

Overtake overtook overtaken. 

Misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood. 

Rem. — The class should repeat this list in concert — prefixing to 
each Yerb one of the Personal Pronouns. For the Third Person 
a Noun may be used — thus : 

I write I wrote I have written having written. 

You tread you trod you have trod having trod. 

He sweeps he swept he has swept having swept. 

John does John did John has done having done. 

Men sit men sat ... men have sat having sat. 

Some hear some heard some have heard having heard. 

They see they saw they are seen being seen. 



VERBS— IRREGULAR. 155 

To the Transitive Verbs, Objects may be attached — thus i 

We saw wood we pawed wood we have sawn wood. 

Birds build nests birds built uests birds have built nests. 

John wiites letters John wrote letters John will write letters. 

Thou seest me thou sawest me thou wilt see me. 

Other variations in these concert exercises may be profitable — 
such as placing the words now, to-day, etc., after the Present — yes- 
terday, etc., after the Fast Tense — and heretofore, recently, etc., after 
the Prior Present — thus : 

I begin to-day I began yesterday I have begun recently. 

The wind blows now the wind blew then the wind has blown often. 

The bell rings often the bell rang lately the bell will ring to-morrow. 

William writes now William wrote then William will write often. 

Uniperso^al Verbs. 

Def. 150. — A Unipersonal Verb is a Verb used only 
as the Predicate of the Indefinite Pronoun "it? 

Examples.— It snows.— It rains.— It seems.— It becomes.— It behooves.— It is 
evident. 

Methinks is an anomalous form of the Yerb think. 

Exercises for Review. 

Rem.— Let the Pupil give the Voice, Mode, Tense, Person, and 
Number of the Verbs in the following Sentences : 

1 . Science strengthens mind. 20. Thou canst not have been understood. 

2. Do you see the large ship traversing 21. Sevastopol could not have been 

the ocean by the force of the wind ? taken. 

3. William has visited Europe. 22. Meteors might have been seen. 

4. Have we exercised discretion ? 23. What should have been done f 

5. I, John, saw these things. 24. Who can be trusted? 

6. Did Washington secure, renown ? 25. Have you been reading poetry ? 

7. Ye had accomplished purposes. 26. Cora will be writing letters. 

8. I shall understand you. 27. Stephen could not have been giving 

9. Will Warner study Greek ? attention. 

10. Thou wilt not comprehend it. 28. Might Clara have been admitted f 

11. Ye will have accomplished much. 29. Boys had been reciting lessons. 

12. We may receive instruction. 30. W e will not be enslaved. 

13. Canst thou guide Arcturus ? 31. Pupils might not have been giving 

14. Shall William accompany us ? attention. 

15. I will study Greek. 32. Caroline will have visited Syria. 

16. They are not appreciated. 33. Hear me for my cause. 

17. Could it not be accomplished ? 34. Be silent, that ye may hear. 

18. Mary might have been misinformed. 35. Bid her give me new and glorious 

19. Wisdom should be honored. hope*. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

ADVERBS. 

Rem. — As actions are modified by circumstances, and as qualities 
vary in degree, so words expressing actions, and words denoting 
qualities, are modified by other words, denoting time, place, degree, 
mangier, cause, &c. Hence, 

Def. 150. — An Adverb is a Word used to modify 
the signification of a Verb, of an Adjective, or of another 
Modifier. 

Obs. 1. — Adverbs may consist of Words, Phrases, and Sentences. 
Examples. 

1. Adverbial Words.— The very best men sometimes commit faults. 

2. Adverbial Phrase.— •" In the beginning, God created the heaven and the 
earth." 

3. Adverbial Sentence.—'"'' They kneeled before they fought." 

Obs. 2. — Adverbial Words are of great utility in rendering the 
language concise and spirited. They are commonly substituted for 
Phrases. 

Examples. 

11 Brilliantly" for " With a brilliant appearance." 

" Solemnly" for " In a solemn manner." 

"Vainly" for ..." In a vain attempt." 

"Here 11 for "In this place." 

"Now" for "At this time." 

1. " Brilliantly the glassy waters mirror back his smiles." 

2. " Solemnly he took the earthly state." 

3. " Vainly we offer each ample oblation." 

4. " Here sleeps he now"— in this place, at this time. 

5. " The waves are white below" — below him. 

6. " Heat me these irons hot." Heat for me these irons hot. 

7. " Willie has come home— early" —at an early hour. 

Eem. — " Below" — " me" — " home" — and " early," are substituted 
for Adverbial Phrases. [See Part I., pp. 23 and 173.] 

Obs. 3. — Words are also substituted for Adverbial Sentences. 

Examples.— 1. " While there, we visited the prison ;" for, while we were at 
Auburn, we visited the prison. 
2. " Then, when lam thy captive, talk of chains." 



ADVERBS—CLASSES. 157 

Obs. 4. — An Adverb often modifies a Phrase. 
Example.— We went almost to Boston. 

" To Boston" is an Adverbial Phrase. " Almost" is an Adverbial 
Word — used to modify the Adverbial Phrase " To Boston." 

Obs. 5. — The Words which Adverbs properly modify are some- 
times understood. 

Example. — Thou canst but add one bitter woe 

To those [ ] already there which are there. 

Obs. 6. — Adverbs sometimes take the place of Yerbs, which they 
modify. 

Examples.—" Off, off, I bid you." " To arms!" 

" Back to thy punishment, false fugitive 1" 

. Obs. 7. — Words generally used as Adverbs sometimes take the 
place of Nouns, and hence become P?^nouns. 

Examples.— 1. " Till then"— for, till that time. 

2. "From there"— for, from that place. 

3. " And I have made a pilgrimage from far."—Hosmer. 

4. " Oh, let the ungentle spirit learn from hence 

A small unkindness is a great offense. 1 ' 

Obs. 8. — Participles become Adverbs when they indicate the man- 
ner of an action, or modify a quality, or are substituted for an Ad- 
verbial Phrase. 

Examples.— 1. " 'Tis strange, "'tis passing strange." 

2. "A virtuous household, but exceeding poor." 

3. " The surging billows and the gamboling storms 

Come, crouching, to his feet." in a crouching attitude. 

[P. 183, Obs. 9.] 

Obs. 9. — A few Words, commonly used as Prepositions, are some- 
times used Adverbially. 

Examples.— 1. " Thou didst look down upon the naked earth." 
2. " And may at last my weary age 

Find out the peaceful hermitage."— Milton. 

Classification of Adverbs. 

Rem. — The classes of Adverbs are very numerous. The follow- 
ing are the most important : 



158 ENGLISH GBAMMAR—PABT II. 

I. Of the Forms of Adverbs. 
Ors. 10. — Some Words are used almost exclusively as Adverbs, 
and are generally Primitive Words. 

Examples.— Even— here— now— not— then— there. 

Obs. 11. — But most Words used as Adverbs are DerimtiveWords — 
their Radicals being used commonly as Nouns or as Adjectives. 

Examples.— 1. From ]¥ouns.— Always— nigh tly— hourly— aloft— ashore. 
2. From Adjectives. — Brilliant??/ — rightly— softly— virtuous^/. 

Obs. 12. — Many Words, commonly used as Nouns, Adjectives, 
Prepositions, etc., become Adverbs by representation or substitution. 
Examples.— 1. " William rises early" — at an early hour. 

2. " You have come too late"— at too late a day. 

3. " Warner will come home"— to his home. 

4. "He will return to-morrow" —on the morrow. 

5. " The captain had gone below r ) — below deck. 

6. " Is the agent within f"— within the house. 

[Seepage^, Ohs. 2.] 

II. Of the Functions of Adverrs. 

Prin. — Adverbs are commonly divided into two pri- 
mary classes : 

1. Adverbs of Manner, and 

2. Adverbs of Circumstance. 

Def. 151. — Adverbs of Manner are those which 
ask or answer the question, How ? 

Ors. 1. — Adverbs of Manner are such as indicate — 

1. Affirmation. — Ay — certainly — doubtless — surely — verily, etc. 

2. Doubt. — Perchance — perhaps — possibly, etc. 

3. Mode. — Aloud — asunder — how — so — together — thus, etc. 

4. Negation. — Nay — not — never. 

Ors. 2. — Phrases and Sentences often indicate the manner of an 
act, and are therefore Adverbials. 

Examples. 
Phrases. — 1. " God moves in a mysterious way." — How? 
2. " Silence now 

Is brooding like a gentle spirit o'er How ? 

The still and pulseless world." 



AD VERBS— CLASSES. 159 

Sentences.— S. "He died as he lived— & devotee of mammon." 

4. " There are departed beiDgs that I have loved as I never again 

shall love in this world." How ? 

Def. 152. — Adverbs of Circumstance are such as 
ask or answer the questions, When? Where? Whither? 
Whence ? How much? Why? — indicating Time, Place, 
Degree, Cause. 

I. Of Time. 

Def. 153. — All Words used to ash or to answer the 
questions, "When?" or ",Hozo often?" are properly 
called Adverbs of Time. 

Examples.— 1. Preset.— Instantly— now— presently— yet, etc. 

2. Past.— Already— heretofore— hitherto— lately. 

3. Future.— Henceforth— hereafter— soon, etc. 

4. Absolute.— Always — ever — never, etc. 

5. Repeated.— Continually— often— rarely— sometimes. 

Obs. 1. — Phrases and Sentences also perform the office of Ad- 
verbs of Time, whenever they ask or answer the questions, when f — 
how often? — how long? 

Examples. 

Phrases.— 1. " In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth." 

2. " The Christmas rose is in bloom during the month of Janu- 

ary" How long ? 

3. " At midnight, in his guarded tent, 

The Turk was dreaming." dreaming— when f— where ? 

Sentences. — 4. lJ And as Jesus passed by, he saw r a man who was blind" saw 

a blind man— when? 

5. " I think of the friends who had roamed with me there, 

When the sky was so blue, and the flowers were so fair.",,,, 
roamed with me — when f 

II. Of Place. 

Def. 154. — All Words used to ash or to answer the 
questions, Where? Whither? or Whence? are classed as 
Adverbs of Place. 

Examples.— 1. In a Place.— Here— there— where ? etc. 

2. To a Place.— Hither— thither— whither ? etc. 

3. From a Place.— Hence— -thence— whence ? etc. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

Obs. 1. — Most Adverbs of Place are in the form of Phrases. 

fin the cars, 

from Rochester, 
Examples.— Mary went \ through New York, 

to Norfolk, 
{via Baltimore. 

Obs. 2. — And many Adverbs of Place are in the form of Sentences 
Example. — " Where wealth and freedom reign, contentment fails." 

III. Of Degree. 

Def. 155. — "Words which ask or answer the questions, 
Hoiv much ? Hotv far ? To what extent ? are classed as 
Adverbs of Degree. 

Examples.— Altogether — hardly — little — much — quite— merely — so— too- 
very, etc. 

IV. Of Causij. 

Def. 156. — Words used to ask or to answer the ques- 
tions, Why? Wherefore? etc., are classed as Adverbs 
of Cause. 

Examples.— Accordingly— consequently— hence— therefore— wherefore,- etc. 
" Let others brave the flood in quest of gain." 

V. Interrogatives. 

Def. 157. — Adverbs used to ask questions are called 
Interrogative Adverbs. 

Examples. — Where have you been 1—How can we escape ? 

Obs. — Interrogative Adverbs are found in each of the above 

classes. 

Modification of Adverbs. 

Prin". — Some Adverbs are modified, like Adjectives, by 
Comparison. 

Examples. 

Pos. Comp. Superl, 

1. By use of Suffixes Soon Sooner Soonest 

2. " " Auxiliary Adverbs. ..,. Wisely More wisely. . . Most wisely. 



AD VERBS— CLASSES. 



161 



An Adverbial Element 
may consist of 



Kecapitulatiok. 



A Word. 




A Phrase. 


-Classes. - 


A Sentence. 









f Affirmation. 
Doubt. 

of Manner \ Mode, or 

| Method. 
L Negation. 

{Time. 
Place 
Decree. 
Cause. 



Questions for Review. 

What is an Adverb ? See Def. 150. 

The Adverbial Element may consist of what ?.. .See Obs. 1. 
Make a Sentence having an Adverbial Word. 
« u phrase. 

Sentence. 
What effect have Adverbial Words on style ? . . . See Obs. 2. 
Adverbial Words are often substituted for what ? See Obs. 3. 
What Class of Elements do Adverbial Words 

often modify ? See Obs. 4. 

Words generally used as Adverbs are often sub- 
stituted for what ? See Obs. 7. 

When do Participles become Adverbs ? See Obs. 8. 

What is said of the Forms of Adverbial Words ? See Obs. 10, 11. 
What is said of Adverbial Words by representa- 
tion ? See Obs. 12. 

What are the two General Classes of Adverbs ?. . See Prin. 

What is an Adverb of Manner ? See Def. 151. 

What Sub-classes of Adverbs of Manner ? See Obs. 1. 

Make a Sentence having an Adverb of Affirmation. 

" " " " Doubt. 

" " " " Manner. 

" " " " Negation. 

" " " a Phrase Adverb of Manner. 

" " " a Sentence Adverb of Manner. 

What is an Adverb of Circumstance ? See Def. 152. 

What Sub-classes have Adverbs of Circumstance ? 

What is an Adverb of Time ? See Def. 153. 

Make a Sentence having an Adverb of Time. 

" " " a Phrase Adverb of Time. 

" " l< a Sentence Adverb of Time. 
What is an Adverb of Place ? See Def. 154. 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II 

PAGE 

159. Make a Sentence having a Word Adverb of Place. 

" " " a Phrase Adverb of Place. 

" " t( a Sentence Adverb of Place. 

160. What is an Adverb of Degree ? See Def. 156. 

Make a Sentence having a Word Adverb of Degree. 

u " " a Phrase Adverb of Degree. 

" " " a Sentence Adverb of Degree. 

What is an Adverb of Cause ? See Def. 157. 

Make a Sentence having a Word Adverb of Cause. 

" " " a Phrase Adverb of Cause. 

" " " a Sentence Adverb of Cause. 

What is an Interrogative Adverb ? See Def. 158. 

Make a Sentence having an Interrogative Adverb of Manner. 

" a a « u Time 

Place. 
" " " " " Degree. 

Cause. 
In what respects are some Adverbs modified ? 

Exercises. 

OP Let the following Adverbs be classified and their Modifica- 
tion given : 

How, Already, In a moment, 

Not, Quickly, In flower, 

There, Vilely, O'er the ruins, 

Soon. Eagerly. At home. 

KIP Let the Adverbial Words, Phrases, and Sentences, in the 
following Examples, be pointed out and parsed after the following 

Model. 
1. " E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend, 
I sit me down, a pensive hour to spend ; 
And placed on high, above the storm? s career, 
Look downward, where a hundred realms appear" 

Now Modifies " sit" — denoting time ; hence, an Adverb. 

^dasiscenV.^" } Modifiesi " sit"— denoting place; hence, an Adverb. 

Down Modifies " sit"— denoting place ; hence, an Adverb. 

A spend Ve h ° Ur t0 [ M °difies " sit 1 '— denoting cause ; hence, an Adverb. 

On high Modifies " placed' 1 — denoting place ; hence, an Adverb. 

Career* 16 St ° rmS (-Modifies " placed 11 — denoting place; hence, an Adverb. 

Downward Modifies " look 11 — denoting place ; hence, an Adverb. 

^ednis^peai- 1 ^ } Mo difies "look 11 -denoting place; hence, an Adverb. 



PREPOSITIONS. 163 

2». " Earth keeps me here 

Awhile ; yet I shall leave it, and phall rise 
On fairer wings than thine, to skies more clear.' 1 '' 

Here Modifies " keeps 1 ' — denoting place ; hence, an Adverb of Place. 

Awhile Modifies " keeps 11 — denoting time ; hence, an Adverb of Time. 

On wings Modifies " rise 11 — denoting means ; hence, an Adverb of Means. 

(" On fairer wings than thine, 11 is the Modified Adverb.) 
Than thine.. Modifies " fairer 11 — denoting degree ; hence, an Adverb of Degree. 

To skies Modifies " rise 11 — denoting place ; hence, an Adverb of Place. 

(" To skies more clear, 11 is the Modified Adverb.) 
More Modifies " clear 11 — denoting degree ; hence, an Adverb of Degree. 

Obs. 1. — Let it be remembered that the term " Adverb" is ap- 
plied to a distinct element in the structure of Sentences — that the 
function of that element may be performed by a single Word or by 
a combination of Words, constituting a Phrase or a Sentence. In 
analyzing Sentences containing these three distinct forms of the 
Adverbial Element, we proceed according to the Models given 
above. But, 

Obs. 2. — The Words composing an Adverbial Phrase or Sentence 
have also their distinct individual offices. Thus, the Adverbial 
Phrase, " Above the storm's career," consists of & Preposition, (above) 
— an Adjective, (the) — an Adjective, (storm's)— a Noun, (career). 

So also the Adverbial Sentence, u Where a hundred realms ap- 
pear," consists of a Conjunction, (where) — an Adjective, (a) — an Ad- 
jective, (hundred) — a Noun, (realms) — and a Verb, (appear). Hence, 

Obs. 3. — In Proximate Analysis, it is sufficient to discuss the Ele- 
ments of Principal Sentences ; while, in Ultimate Analysis, each 
separate Word composing an Element is to be parsed separately. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

Remark. — In the English language, two or more Words often 
combine to constitute an individual Element [See Def. 8] in the 
structure of Sentences. These combinations are generally intro- 
duced by Words used to show some relation of the words which 
follow to some preceding words. Hence, 

Def. 159. — A Preposition is a Word used to intro- 
duce a Phrase, showing the relation of its Object to the 
Word which the Phrase qualifies. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR—PART II. 

Obs.— A Preposition is generally an Element in a Phrase — not in 
a Sentence. Its office is : 

1. To introduce a Phrase, 

2. To indicate the office of its Phrase, by showing a peculiar re- 

lation of the words connected. 

The following Words are sometimes or generally used as Prepo- 
sitions : 

LIST. 

(a.) A "Wild winds and mad waves drive the vessel a wreck" 

Abaft " The ropes were coiled abaft the beamy 

Aboard " They came aboard ship.'''' 

About JtWe_ walked about town." 

Above " There is a ferry above the falls." 

Across " Across the ocean came a pilgrim bark." 

Adown '"He let fall adown his silvery beard some tears." 

Afore "I took position afore the windlass." 

(c.) After "He that cometh after me, is preferred before me." 

Against " He that is not for me, is against me" 

Along '.." Winds that run along the summits of their hills." 

Amid " We stowed them amidships." 

Amidst "Amidst the mists, he thrusts his fists." 

Among "He became a great favorite among the boys." 

Amongst " We made diligent search amongst the rubbish." 

An ear " The last measure of misery anear us is seldom seen." 

Around " The chill dews of evening were falling around me." 

(c.) As " That England can spare from her service such, men as him." 

Aslant "It struck aslant the beam.'''' 

Astride " He sat astride the beam." 

At "He was at work at noon." 

Athwart " The dolphin leaped athwart her bows." 

(c.) Before " He stood before the people." 

Behind. . " She stood behind a rick of barley." 

Below " The captain was below decks." 

Beneath " Beneath the mouldering ruins." 

Beside " Beside its embers, red and clear." (By the side of.) 

Besides " There was a famine in the land, besides the first famine" 

(In addition to.) 

Between " Between ivhom,, perfect friendship has existed." 

Betwixt . " There is no difference betwixt tJiem." 

Beyond " Beyond all doubt." " He lives beyond the lake." 

(c.) But " All went but me." 

By "To sail by Ephesus."—" They stood by the cross" 

Concerning.." Concerning ivhom I have before written." 

Despite " He will rise to fame, despite all opposition." 

During " This has occurred many times during the year." 

(c.) Ere " And ere another evening's close." 

Except " Except the*e bonds." 

Excepting.. . " Excepting that bad habit, the teacher was faultless." 

(c.) For. , . " For me your tributary stores combine." 



PREPOSITIONS. 165 

LIST. 

From " Playful children, just let loose from school." 

In .."In dread, in danger, and alone. 11 

Into " Into these glassy eyes put light." 

(a.) Like " An hour like this may well display the emptiness of 

human grandeur. 1 ' 

Mauger. " This, mauger all the world, will I keep safe. 1 ' 

(ad.) Near "His residence is near the church." 

Next " Plural nominatives should be placed next their verbs" 

Nigh " Come not nigh me" 

Notwithstanding. ."Notwithstanding this, we remain friends. " 

Of " Of the arts of -peace." 

(ad.) Off " He fell off the bows." 

On " On a bed of green sea-flowers. " 

(a.) Opposite " Our friend lives opposite the Exchange." 

Over " High o'er their heads the weapons swung." 

(a.) Past " We came past Avon." 

(a.) Pending "He remained at court, pending the negotiations." 

(a.) Per "Twelve hundred dollars per annum." 

(a.) Respecting " Nothing was known respecting him." 

Round "He went round the parish, making complaints." 

Sans " Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything." 

(c.) Since " Since Saturday he has not been seen. 11 

Save " All, save this little nook of land." 

(a.) Saving " With habits commendable, saving only this— he chews 

tobacco. 11 
(c.) Than " Than whom none higher sat." 

Till "He labored hard till noon." 

To " We purpose to go to Rochester to-day." 

(a.) Touching " Touching these things, whereof I am accused." 

Towards "They returned towards evening ." 

Under " Then they went under the cloud." 

Underneath " And underneath his feet, he cast the darkness." 

Unlike " Unlike all that I had ever before seen." 

(c.) Until " We shall not return until Saturday." 

Unto " Unto him who rules the invisible armies of eternity." 

Up " The whole fleet was sailing up the river." 

Upon "He stood upon the highest peak." 

Versus " John Doe versus Richard Roe." 

Via " This stage is for Buffalo, via Batavia." 

With " With cautious steps and slow." 

Within " Peace be within these walls." 

Without " Without it, what is man ?" 

Rem. — Words marked (a.) are also used as Adjectives. 

Words marked (c.) are also used as Conjunctions. 
Words marked (ad.) are also used as Adverbs. 

Obs. 1. — The following Words, when used together, are often 
called Double Prepositions : 

Aboard of " We could not get aboard of her." 

P According to .. ."He came according to agreement," 
As for " As for me and my house." 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PABT II 

As to " As to that, I have nothing to say." 

But for "And but for these vile guns, he would have been a 

soldier." 

Contrary to " He came contrary to expectation.' 1 '' 

Devoid of " You live devoid of peace." 

.From among " From among thousand celestial ardors." 

From between. . " He came from between the lakes" 

_From off " This lady-fly I take from off the grass." 

.From under "He rushed from under the falling tower." 

Instead of " Instead of the thorn shall come up the fir." 

In lieu of "She has that sum in lieu of dower." 

Out of " Out of the cooling brine to leap." 

Over against. . . ." Every one worked over against his own house." 
Previous to. "Previous to this, his character had been good." 

Obs. 2. — Most of these, however, may be resolved into separate 
Words — making complex Phrases. 

Examples.— 1. Aboard of— on board of. 

He came on board of the ship. 

2. From between. 

He came from [his home, situated] between the lakes. 

3. Instead of— in place of. 

In the stead [place] of the thorn. 

4. Previous to — previously to. 

Previous^ to this his character had been good. 

Eem. — A few other words are sometimes used as Prepositions. 

Obs. 3. — The antecedent term of relation — the word which the 
Phrase, introduced by a Preposition, qualifies — may be 

A Noun. — The house of God. — The land of the blessed. 

A Pronoun. — Who of us shall go ? — I care not which of you. 

An Adjective. — It is good for nothing. 

A Verb. — We love to study. — We delight in improvement. 

A Participle. — Jumping from a precipice. — " Rushing through 

the valleys." 
An Adverb. — " He is too wise to err, and too good to be unkind." • 

Obs. 4. — A Preposition commonly indicates the office of the 
Phrase which it introduces. 

In, on, under, above, etc., indicate a relation of place, including 
the idea of rest. 

( in the hall, 

Examples.— William's hat is < on the stool, 

( under the table. 



PREPOSITIONS. 167 

From, to, into, tlirough, out of, etc., indicate a relation of place, 
with the idea of motion. 

{from New York, 
Examples. — We came •< to Boston, 

f through Springfield. 

Of, generally indicates a relation of possession. 
Example.—" The lay of the last minstrel"— the last minstreVs lay. 

As, like, than, etc., used as Prepositions, indicate a relation of 

comparison. 

Examples.— 1. " It is not lit for such as us 

To sit with rulers of the land. 1 '— W. Scott. 

2. "All great, learned men, like me, 

Once learned to read their A, B, C." 

3. " Than whom, earth holds no better man." 

During, till, since, etc., indicate a relation of time. 

Examples.— 1. " We have vacation during the whole month of July." 
2. " Since Saturday, we have not seen him." 

But, as the kind of relation expressed by a given Preposition is 
not uniform, no perfect classification can be made. 

Obs. 5. — Prepositions are sometimes incorporated with their 
Objects. 

Examples.— I go a-fshmg.—Re fell a-sleep.— Come a-board. 

Obs. 6. — Words commonly used as Prepositions are sometimes 
used in Predication with Verbs. 

Examples.— 1. Its idle hours are o'er. 

2. That was not thought of. 



For other observations on Prepositions, see Part III. — 

Prepositions. 

Exercises. 
1. Where streams of earthly joy exhaustless rise. 

Of Shows a relation of "streams" and "joy." Hence, a Pre- 
position. 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

2. " refuge, 
Meet for fainting pilgrims.'''' 

For Shows a relation of " meet" and " pilgrims." Hence, a 

Preposition. 

3. "On the plains, 
And spangled fields, and in the mazy vales, 
The living throngs of earth before Him fall, 
With thankful hymns, receiving from His hands 
Immortal life and gladness." 

On Shows a relation of [existing understood, which qualifies] 

11 throngs" and " plains and fields." Hence, a Prepo- 
sition. 

In Shows a relation of [existing understood, which qualifies] 

" throngs" and " vales." Hence, a Preposition. 

Of Shows a relation of " throngs" and " earth." Hence, a 

Preposition. 

Before. .Shows a relation of " fall" and " him." Hence, a Prepo- 
sition. 

With. . .Shows a relation of [worshiping, or some equivalent w T ord 
understood, which qualifies] " throngs" and " hymns." 
Hence, a Preposition. 

ggir Let the Pupils point out the Prepositions, with their several 
Antecedents and Objects, in the following 

Additional Examples. 

4. " The chief fault of Coleridge lies in the style, which has been justly ob- 
jected to, on account o/its obscurity, general turgidness of diction, and a profu- 
sion of new-coined double epithets. 1 ' 

5. To him, who, in the love of nature, holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language : 

6. For his gayer hours 
She has a voice of gladness, and a smdle 
And eloquence of beauty ; 

7. And she glides 
Into his darker musings, with a mild 
And gentle sympathy, that steals away 
Their sharpness, ere he is aware. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



169 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

Rem. — It should be remembered that Prepositions connect Words 
by showing a relation. 

We have another class of Words, used simply to connect Words 
and Phrases similar in construction, and to introduce Sentences. 
Hence, 

Def. 160. — A Conjunction is a Word used to join 
Words, Phrases, and Sentences, or to introduce Sen- 
tences. 

Examples.— Mary and Anna have perfect lessons, because they study dili- 
gently. 

Rem. 1. — In this example, " and" connects "Mary" and "Anna" 
—two words having the same construction — and " because" intro- 
duces an Auxiliary Sentence. 

List. 
The following are the principal Words which are commonly 
used as Conjunctions : 



After* 


Either, 


Moreover, 


Than* 


Again, 


Else, 


Nay, 


That, 


Also, 


Except* 


Neither, 


Then* 


Although* 


For* 


Nor, 


Therefore, 


And, 


Further, 


Now, 


Though* 


As* 


Furthermore, 


Notwithstanding,* 


1 Thus, 


As well as* 


Howbeit, 


Or, 


Unless* 


Because* 


However,* 


Otherwise, 


When* 


Before* 


Howsoever,* 


Provided,* 


Wherefore, 


Being* 


If* 


Since,* 


While* 


Besides, 


Inasmuch as * 


So, 


Whilst, 


Both, 


Lest* 


Still, 


Yet. 


But, 


Likewise, 







Rem. 2. — A few other words are sometimes used as Conjunctions. 

Rem. 3. — The words in the above List, marked thus (*), com- 
monly introduce Auxiliary Sentences. 

Obs. 1. — Conjunctions used to introduce Auxiliary Sentences, 
and some others, constitute also an index or type of the office of 
the Sentences which they introduce, 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

Examples.— 1. "If he repent, forgive him." 

2. " As you journey, sweetly sing." 

In these examples, " if ' renders its Sentence conditional—"^" 
indicates that its Sentence ("you journey 7 ') modifies "sing" in 
respect to time. 

Note. — When, as, since, and many other Conjunctions used to 
introduce Auxiliary Sentences, are called, by some grammarians, 
Conjunctive Adverbs. "And the rest will 1 set in order when I 
come." We are told that " when," in the above example, is an Ad- 
verb of Time, relating to the two Verbs, " will set" and " come." 

We are also told (and properly) that " Adverbs of time are those 
which answer to the question when t" 

But does " when," in the above example, " answer the question 
wlien f" Certainly not. Then it can not be an Adverb of Time. 
But the Auxiliary Sentence, " when I come," does answer the ques- 
tion " when." It tells when " I will set the rest in order." Hence the 
Sentence, " when I come," is an Adverb of Time ; and the Word 
" when"— used only to introduce that Sentence— connecting it to 
" will set," is a Conjunction. [See the preceding observation.] 

Obs. 2. — A Word used chiefly to introduce a Sentence is there- 
fore a Conjunction. If the Sentence introduced by it is Auxiliary 
Adverbial in office, it may properly be called an Adverbial Con- 
junction. 

Let the Pupil remember that it is the Sentence that is Adverbial— 
not the Word used to introduce the Sentence. 

Obs. 3. — The Conjunction nor generally performs a secondary 
office — that of a negative Adverb. 

Example.—" Man wants but little here below, 
Nor wants that little long." 

In this example " nor" introduces the Sentence, and also gives 
it a negative signification. 

The Conjunction " lest" has sometimes a similar construction. 
Example.—" Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty." 

Obs. 4.— Double Conjunctions. — Two Conjunctions are some- 
times used to introduce the same Sentence. 

Examples. — 1. " It seems as if they were instructed by some secret instinct." 
2. " And yet, fair bow, no fabling dreams. 1 ' 



CONJUNCTIONS. 171 

As though, but that, and some other words, are often used as 
Double Conjunctions. 

Obs. 5. — But, when an Auxiliary Sentence precedes a Principal 
Sentence, the Conjunctions introducing them are not to be regarded 
as double, although they may be in juxtaposition. [See this Obs.] 

Obs. 6. — In addition to those "Words properly called Conjunctions, 
we have other words used to introduce Sentences — as a secondary 
office. 

Examples.— 1. " The grave, that never spoke before, 

Hath found at length a tongue to chide.'" 
2. " We are watchers of a beacon, 
Whose light must never die." 

Rem. 1. — " That never spoke before," is an Auxiliary Sentence 
introduced by the word " that" 

The principal office of "that" is Substantive — the Subject of 
"spoke." Its secondary office is Conjunctive — introduces its Sen- 
tence and connects it with its Principal. 

Rem. 2. — In Example 2, the Word " whose" has a Principal office — 
Adjunct of " light ;" and a secondary office — introduces its Sen- 
tence and connects it with its Principal. 

All Relative Pronouns serve the office of Conjunctions, in addi- 
tion to their Substantive office. 

[For other observations, the student is referred to Part III., 
Conjunctions.] 

Exercises. 

il God created the heaven and the earth." 

I And". . . Connects " heaven" and " earth." Hence a Conjunction. 

"Temperance and frugality promote health and secure happiness." 
f And". . . Connects " temperance" and " frugality." Hence, a Con- 
junction. 

" And". .. Connects "promote" and "secure." Hence, a Conjunc- 
tion. 
" And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill." 
"And".. .Introduces a Sentence. Hence, a Conjunction. 
I And". . .Connects " deadly" and " chill." Hence, a Conjunction. 

" And hoary peaks that proudly prop the skies, 
Thy dwellings are." 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

" And".. .Introduces a Sentence. Hence, a Conjunction. 
" That"... Is the Subject of " prop." Hence, a Substantive. 

It also introduces its Sentence, and connects it with 
" peaks." 

11 My heart is awed within me when I think 
Of the great miracle that still goes on 
In silence round me." 

" When"..Introduces the Auxiliary Sentence. Hence, a Conjunc- 
tion. 
" Its Sentence is Adverbial in its office. Hence, an Ad-, 
verbial Conjunction. 
"When" is not an Element — i. e., it bears no part in the 
structure of its Sentence. It is neither a Principal 
Part, nor an Adjunct; it 'primarily connects: second- 
arily, indicates the office of its Sentence. [See Obs. 1, 
above.] 

" That". ..Is the subject of " goes." Hence, a Substantive — a Pro- 
noun. 

As a secondary office, " that" introduces its Sentence, and 
connects it with "miracle." Hence, a Conjunctive 
Pronoun. 



EXCLAMATION. 

Def. 161. — An Exclamation is a Word used to ex- 
press a sudden or intense emotion. 

Obs. 1. — Exclamations may consist — 

1. Of Letters— as, Of Oh! Ah! Lo! 

2. Of Words — commonly used as Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, 

and Adverbs — as, Woe ! Strange ! Hark ! Really ! Be* 
hold! Shocking! 

3. Of Phrases — For shame ! 

4. Of Sentences — " 0, Ephraim ! How can I give thee up!" 

Obs. 2. — Exclamations are followed by — 

Words — " O, Liberty !" — " Ah, the treasure !" 
Phrases — " O, for a lodge in some vast wilderness !" 
Sentences — " O, bear me to some solitary cell !" 

Rem. — The term Exclamation is preferred to Interjection, as being 
more appropriate to its office. 



WOEDS OF EUPHONY. 173 

Exclaim — " to cry out." This we do with the use of Exclama- 
tions. 

Interject — " to cast between." We very seldom cast these words 
"between others — they are generally placed before other words. 

WORDS OF EUPHONY. 

Def. 162.— A Word of Euphony is a Word used 
chiefly for the sake of sound, or to change the position, 
accent, or emphasis of other Words in a Sentence. 

Examples.— 1. " I think there is a knot of you, 
Beneath that hollow tree. 1 ' 

" There!'' is used to allow the Predicate " is" to precede its Sub- 
ject, " knot" In this Sentence it is not used Adverbially. 

2. " I sit me down a pensive hour to spend." 

" Me" is used to throw the accent on the word " down" 

3. " These were thy charms, sweet village ! sports like these, 

With sweet succession, taught e'en toil to please. 11 

" E'en" is used to make " toil" emphatic. 

Obs. 1. — Words of Euphony are such as commonly belong to 
some other " part of speech." But they are properly called Words 
of Euphony when they do not perform their usual grammatical 
offices. They are, then, in their offices chiefly Rhetorical — being 
used, 

(1.) To render other Words emphatic. 
Examples.— 1. " Even in their ashes live their wonted fires." 
2. " The moon herself is lost in heaven." 

(2.) To change the position of the parts of a Sentence. 

Examples.— 3. " There are no idlers here. 1 ' 

4. "Now, then, we are prepared to take up the main question." 

(3.) To preserve the rhythm in a line of poetry. 
Examples.— 5. " I sit me down a pensive hour to spend." 
6. " His teeth they chatter, chatter still." 

Rem. 1. — It is quite idle to call — as most grammarians do — the 
Word even, in Example 1, an Adverb, modifying " live ;" for its 
sole office is to render the phrase '* in their ashes" emphatic. Such 
office is Rhetorical — not Grammatical. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PABT II. 

Rem. 2.— To call the word " there," in Example 3, an " Adverb 
of Place," is manifestly absurd ; since the Verb " are" is modified 
by the Adverb " here," and hence can not, at the same time, be 
modified by a Word of directly the opposite signification. 

Rem. 3. — The same remark is also applicable to the word " then," 
in Example 4. 

Obs. 2. — Words are often transposed, lengthened, shortened, and in 
other ways changed for the sake of sound. [See " Euphony," in 
Part III.] 



WORDS VARYING IN THEIR 
ETYMOLOGY. 

Rem. 1. — Words are similar in Orthoepy when they are pro- 
nounced with the same sound of the same letter. 

Examples.— There, their— all, awl— ant, aunt. 

Rem. 2. — They are similar in Orthography when they are formed 
by the same letters, similarly arranged. 

Examples.— Bead, read— ex' tract, extract'— wind, wind. 

Rem. 3. — They are similar in Etymology when they perform a 
similar office in the construction of a Phrase or of a Sentence. 

Rem. 4. — Bat it is plain that words similar in Orthoepy differ in 
their Orthography — and words of similar Orthography perform 
widely different offices in different connections. 

G£p~ It should always be remembered by the Pupil that the office 
of a word — not its shape — determines its Etymology. 

Obs. — Among the Words of similar Orthography that differ in 
their Etymology are the following : 

A Adj Webster wrote a Dictionary. 

A Prep.-. . . Wild winds and mad waves drive the vessel a wreck. 

Above . . . Prep He stands above us. 

Above . . . Adv By the terms above specified. 

After Prep He that cometh after me is preferred before me. 

After Conj He came after you left. 

After Adj He was in the after part of the ship. 



OBSERVATIONS. 175 

As Prep. . To redeem such a rebel as me.— Wesley. 

As Conj . . .Just as the twig is beut the tree's inclined. 

As Adv . . .Nature, as far as art can do it, should be imitated. 

As Pron. . .Such as I have, give I unto thee. 

Before Prep. . . He stood before the people. 

Before Conj . . . They kneeled before they fought. 

Both Adj .... Situated on both sides of the river. 

Both Pron.. .Lepidus flatters both— of both is flattered. 

Both Conj . . .And now he is both loved and respected. 

But Prep ...All but me were rewarded. 

Bat Conj . . .1 go— but I return. 

But Adv If we go, we can but die. 

But Verb. . .1 can not but rejoice at his unexpected prosperity. 

Ere Prep. . .And ere another evening's close. 

Ere Conj . . .And ere we could arrive [at] the point proposed. 

For Prep. . . They traveled for pleasure. 

For Conj . . .He can not be a scholar, for he will not study. 

Like Prep. . .Nature all blooming like thee. 

Like Adj Like causes produce like effects. 

Like Verb. . .We like whatever gives us pleasure. 

Like Noun . . We shall never see the like again. 

Near Adj ... .At the near approach of the star of day. 

Near Prep . . .We live near the springs. 

Near Adv Books were never near so numerous. 

Near Verb. . .We shall near the light-house. 

Neither ...Adj. .. .He can debate on neither side of the question. 

Neither .. .Pron.. .We saw neither of them. 

Neither . ..Conj. . .The boy could neither read nor write. 

Next Adj The next generation. 

Next Prep. . .Adjectives should be placed next their substantives. 

Off Adj . . . .The off ox should keep the furrow. 

Off Prep. . .William fell off the load. 

Only Adj Love and love only is the loan for love. 

Only Adv Only observe what a swarm is running after her. 

Opposite. .Adj On the opposite bank of the river. 

Opposite. .Prep. . .We stood opposite the Exchange. 

Past Adj . . . .A past transaction. 

Past Prep . . .It was past mid-day. 

Round Adj Like the round ocean. 

Round Prep . . . Flxmg.round the bier. 

Still Adj Still waters reflect a milder light. 

Still Adv. . . . Still struggling, he tries to stand. 

Still Conj . ..Still, the reflection has troubled me. 

Still Noun . .The loafer lounges about the still. 

Since Prep. . .Since yesterday, we have taken nothing. 

Since Conj. . .Since I can not go, I will be contented here. 

So Adj Solomon was wise— we are not so. 

So Adv So calm, so bright. 

So Conj ..." I'll say thee nay, so thou wilt woo." 

Than Conj... She is more nice than wise. 

Than Prep. . . Than whom, Satan except, none higher sat. 

Than Pron. . . We have more than heart can wish. 



176 ENGLISH OBAMMAR—PABT II. 



That Adj That book is mine. 

That Bel. Pron. . . " Him that cometh unto me, I will in no wise cast out." 

That Pron. Adj . . .Forgive me my foul murder ? that can not be. 

That Conj I am glad that he has lived thus long. 

Then Adv Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains. 

Then Conj Then, I'll look up. 

Then Pron .... Till then. 

Till Prep They labored hard till night. 

Till Conj Till I come, give attention to reading. 

Till Noun He kept his money in the till. 

Until Prep From morn, even until night. 

Until Conj Until the day dawn. 

What Adj At what hour did you arrive ? 

What Bel. Pron. . . What Beason weaves, by Passion is undone. 

What Inter. Pron. . What does it avail ? 

What Exclam What ! is thy servant a dog ? 

Within — Prep To inscribe a circle within a circle. 

Within — Adj Beceived on the within bond, five hundred dollars. 

Obsebyations on some of the Foregoing Words. 

As When this Word introduces a Sentence, it is properly called 

a Conjunction. 
Example. — "As ye journey, sweetly sing." 

When it introduces a Phrase, it is a Preposition, and is then 
generally equivalent to the Preposition for. 
Examples.— 1. " He gave me this as the latest news from the army." 

2. " I am always fearful lest I should tell you that for news 
with which you are well acquainted." 

The above examples clearly indicate that as is sometimes a Prepo- 
sition. 

Rem. — Many grammarians insist that as, in the above and simi- 
lar examples, " must be a Conjunction, because, in most cases, it 
connects words in apposition. 

The same is often true of other Prepositions. 
Examples.— 1. In the city of New York. 

2. " thy shadowy hand was seen 

Writing thy name of Death."— Pollok. 

We do not claim that these examples contain words precisely in 
apposition — as much so, however, as any words claimed to be con- 
nected by as. 

As is often used (by ellipsis of one or more words) as a Pronoun. 
[See Rem. on than below.] 

1. But.— This word, like most Conjunctions, is derived from a 



OBSER VA T10NS. Ill 

Saxon Verb signifying " except"—" set aside"—" fail," etc. [See 
Webster' 9 s Improved Grammar.] 

In the list above given, the Word retains its original signification 
and office. 

Example.— "I can not but rejoice. 1 ' 
Equivalent.— I can not fail— omit to rejoice. 

2. But is also used instead of the words, if it were not, or were it 
not. 

Example.— "And but for these vile guns, he would himself have been a sol- 
dier." 

3. But sometimes supplies the places of a Relative Pronoun and 
a Negative Adverb. 

Example.—" I scarce can meet a monument but holds my younger. 1 ' 
Equivalent.— I scarce can meet a monument that holds not my younger. 

Like. .When this word qualifies a Noun, it is an Adjective— when 
it represents its Noun, it is an Adjective Pronoun. But 
when it shows a relation of two words, it is a Preposition. 
Examples.— 1. " These armies once lived, and breathed, and felt like us. 11 
2. " Yet all great learned men, like me, 
Once learned to read their A, B, C." 

Than. . .This word always expresses comparison, and comparison 
implies a relation. When this relation is expressed by 
Words, than is a Preposition. When it is expressed by 
Sentences, and when Words, Phrases, or Sentences are 
merely connected by it, it is a Conjunction. The use of 
it as a Preposition is sanctioned by good authority, ancient 
and modern. 

Than always introduces a Word, a Phrase, or a Sentence, which 
constitutes a second term of a comparison of inequality. 
Examples.— 1. " She is more nice than wise." 
I Than" connects words, and is therefore a Conjunction. 

2. " Than whom none higher sat. 1 ' 

" Than" introduces a Phrase, and is therefore a Preposition. 

3. " We have more than heart could wish. 1 ' 

" Than" is the object of " could wish," and introduces the Sen- 
tence which limits " more," hence— by virtue of the ellipsis— it is a 
Relative Pronoun. Supply the words suppressed by ellipsis, and 
" than" becomes a Preposition. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART II. 

Obs. 1. — Many words are used as Prepositions or Conjunctions, 
according as they introduce Phrases or Sentences. 
Examples.— 1: John arrived before me. 

" Before me" . .Is a Phrase, used to modify " arrived ;" hence, Ad- 
verbial. 
" Before" Is a Preposition. 

2. John arrived before I did. 

" Before I did". Is a Sentence, used to modify " arrived ;" hence, 

Adverbial. 
" Before" Is a Conjunction. 

3. John arrived as soon as I. 

"As I" Is a Phrase used to modify " arrived ;" hence, Ad- 
verbial. 

4. John arrived as soon as I did. 

"As I did" Is a Sentence, used to modify "arrived;" hence, 

Adverbial. 

Obs. 2. — Of the many words thus used as Prepositions and Con- 
junctions, custom allows two — as and than — to be followed by 
Pronouns in the Nominative form. 

Examples.— 1. " Thou art wiser than I." 
2. u Thou art as tall as I." 

Obs. 3. — But the Objective form is also used by our best writers. 

Examples.— 1. " It is not fit for such as us 

To sit with rulers of the land. 11 — W. Scott. 
2. " Than whom none higher sat. 11 — Milton. 

Worth This word is a contraction of worthy, originally an 

Adjective, and commonly indicates value; — it 
often has the force of a Preposition. 
Example.—" He possessed an estate worth five hundred pounds per annum." 
Equivalent.—" He has an annuity of five hundred pounds. 1 ' 

Rem. — This word is used also as a Noun. 

Example. — " He was a man of great worthy 

Nor — composed of not and other — retains the offices of its ele- 
ments. 

Example.—" Nor will I at my humble lot repine. 11 

Here " nor," being used to modify " repine" — is an Adverb of Ne- 
gation. But because it introduces a Sentence additional to a former 



SUBSTITUTION OF ELEMENTS. 179 

Sentence, it is a Conjunction : like many other Conjunctions, it in- 
dicates the office of the Sentence which it introduces, making it 
negative. 

Substitution of Elements. 

Obs. — In the structure of Sentences, an Element of one form is 
often substituted for that of another. 

1. A Letter is substituted for a Word. 
Example.— 'Tis strange. 



r~~ 'T jf is strange ^^ 

Rem:. — Here " T," as an Element in the Sentence, is a representa- 
tive of "it," and is a Pronoun — Subject of the Sentence. Hence, 
in the Nominative Case. 

But " T," as an Element in the word " it," is a Letter — a Conso- 
nant — Mute— Subsequent to its vowel " Z" 

2. A Word is substituted for a Phrase. 
Example 1.— These crowd around to ask him of his health. 



C These jT crowd ) 



ED I 



Rem. 1. — " Around," as an Element of the Sentence, is an Adverb 
of Place — being used as a representative of the Adverbial Phrase 
around him. 

" Around," as an Element of its Phrase, is the Leader — a Prepo- 
sition — showing a relation of " crowd" to him understood. 



)) 



Rem. 2. — " Home," as an Element in the Sentence, is an Adverb 
of Place — being used as a representative of the Phrase to her home. 

" Home," as an Element in its Phrase, is the Subsequent— "Word 
— Noun — Common — Objective Case— Object of to understood. 



2.— Anna has gone home. 






C Anna "Y" has gone \ 


. 


X 




1 


home 


\ 


r i x j . 



180 ENGLISH GBAMMAB—PABT II. 

Example 3. — Clara has come to school early. 



C Clara jT haSjCome J 



Y has come j 

[/t o) school) ; | x ~3^~-" ~S' 



Eem. 3.—" Early," as an Element in the Sentence, is an Adverb 
of Time — being used as a representative of the Phrase at an early 
hour. 

" Early," as an Element in its Phrase, is an Adjunct— Word- 
Adjective — and limits hour understood. 

For further illustrations, see Obs. 1 and 2, page 22. 

Rem.— A careful examination of the genius of the English lan- 
guage will disclose the fact, that a great majority of words perform 
at the same time two or more distinct offices— as individual and as 
representative. The Rule to be observed in parsing is, that a word 

should be parsed first according to its representative office in the Sen- 
tence, then according to its individual office. 

Exercises m the Analysis of Sentences. 

Rem. — Teachers will find the use of the blackboard of great ser- 
vice in the Analysis of Sentences and of Phrases. 

Of the many Models for Analysis, used by successful Teachers, 
the following are given, in addition to those found in Part I. 
First Model. 

" An hour like this may well display the emptiness of humaa grandeur.'* 

ELEMENTS. 

The Modified* Subject An hour like this 

The Pure Subject hour. 

The Logical Predicate -J ma ^ e e u r display the em P tiness of kuman 

The Modified^ Predicate may well display 

The Pure Predicate may display. 

The Modified Object the emptiness of human grandeur. 

The Pure Object emptiness. 

ADJUNCTS. 

Of the Subject iuL'M* a S° rd ' 

, . j like this a Phrase. 

Of the Predicate well a Word. 

Of the Object. i **"*• '••'•,• • • a Word. 

J J 1 of human grandeur a Phrase. 

...... * Seepage 31. . ..,..., t See page 32. 



EXERCISES ON THE CHART. 181 

Second Model. 

" How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood." 

Principal Elements. Modified Elements. Adjunct Elements. 

Sub.... « Scenes".. .The scenes of my childhood.. \ l^kidhood.l E*e. 

Fred. . . "Are dear" . Are how dear to my heart ....{ ?^y i^rt' \ \ \ \l Se. 

Third Model. 

" The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea." 

The Modified Subject. The Modified Predicate. 

" The lowing herd" " winds slowly o'er the lea." 

Grammatic Subject. Adjuncts. Grammatic Predicate. Adjuncts. 

Herd. ■}, T ^ e (-Winds i , slow| y 

1 lowing j- winds 1 o'er the lea. 






EXEECISES OJST THE CHART. 



Rem. 1. — The following Exercises will exhibit the proper method 
of using the Chart in Etymological Parsing. 

Rem. 2. — If the large Chart is used, the attention of the whole 
Class should be directed to it — one of the students using a " pointer," 
as he repeats the construction of each word, according to the for- 
mulae given below. 

Rem. 3. — It is well for beginners in Etymological Parsing to have 
the Sentence to be parsed first placed in Diagram on the black- 
board. 

1. Animals run. 

f Animals jf run """} 

Animals An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Subject 

— Word — Noun— Common — Masculine Gender-^THiRD Per- 
son— Plural Number— Nominative Case. 

Run An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Predi- 
cate— Verb— Indicative Mode— Present Tense. 

2. Mary is reading. 

Q Mary ^ ia t reading ^ 

Mary An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Subject 

—Word— Noun— Proper— Feminine Gender— Third Person 
—Singular Number— Nominative Case, 
reading An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Predi- 
cate— Verb and Participle— Verb is in the Indicative 
Mode — Present Tense. 

Reading An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— used in 

Predicate with "is." 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II 

3. He might have been respected. 

C He Y might have been respected J 

He An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Subject 

—Word— Pronoun— Personal— Masculine Gender— Third 
Person— Singular Number— Nominative Case. 
Might have j An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Predi- 
been respected 1 cate— two Verbs and two Participles— Verb is in the Po- 
tential Mode— Prior Past Tense. 

4. His palsied hand waxed strong. 

hand Ywaxed " strong ) 



Hifejl Pals^d) 

His An Element in the Sentence— Adjunct— Primary— Word- 
Adjective— Specifying— Possessive. 

Palsied An Element in the Sentence— Adjunct— Primary— Word- 
Adjective— Verbal— Intransitive. 

Hand An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Subject 

—Word— Noun— Common— Neuter Gender— Third Person— 
Singular Number— Nominative Case. 

Waxed strong... An Element in the Sentence-Principal Element— Predi- 
cate— Verb and Adjective— Verb is in the Indicative Mode 
—Past Tense. 

Strong An Element in the Sentence— Adjective used in Predicate 

with " waxed. 1 ' 
5. That good men sometimes commit faults, can not be denied. 

(That ) 



£ men y commit Y iaults j ]f can be denied J 
{ good) (somet's) J ( ^ nof, J 



That good men ) An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Subject 

ISmmii tofts, j -Sentence-Substantive-Simple-Transitive. 

Can be denied. '..An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Predi- 
cate— two Verbs and a Participle— Verb is in the Potential 
Mode— Present Tense. 

Not An Element in the Sentence— Adjunct— Primary— Word- 
Adverb of Negation. 
6. He hears the thunder ere the tempest lowers. 



C 



He T hears T thunder 



"tempest^ lowers j 
the 



the 



EXERCISES ON THE CHART. 183 

He An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Subject 

—Word— Pronoun— Personal— Masculine Gender— Third 
Person— Singular Number— Nominative Case. 

Hears An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Predi- 
cate— Verb— Indicative Mode— Present Tense. 

The An Element in the Sentence— Adjunct— Primary— Word- 
Adjective— Specifying — Pure. 

Thunder An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Object 

—Word— Noun— Common— Neuter Gender— Third Person 
—Singular Number— Objective Case. 

Ere the tern- 1 An Element in the Sentence— Adjunct— Primary— Sen- 

pest lowers... f tence— Adverb— Intransitive. 

7. Too low they build who build beneath the stars. 



C 




Too An Element in the Sentence— Adjunct— Secondary— Word 

— Adverb— of Degree. 

Low An Element in the Sentence— Adjunct— Primary— Word- 
Adverb— of Place. 

They An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Subject 

—Word— Personal— Masculine Gender— Third Person— 
Plural Number— Nominative Case. 

Build An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Predi- 
cate— Verb— Indicative Mode— Present Tense. 

Who build be- ) An Element in the Sentence— Adjunct— Primary— Sentence 

neath the stars ) —Adjective— Simple— Intransitive. 

Who An Element in the Auxiliary Sentence— Principal Element 

—Subject— Word— Pronoun— Relative— Masculine Gen- 
der— Third Person— Plural Number— Nominative Case. 

Build An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Verb- 
Indicative Mode— Present Tense. 

Beneath the { An Element in the Sentence — Adjunct — Secondary — Phrase 

stars , ) — Adverbial— Prepositional— Intransitive. 

Rem. — In the analysis of a Complex Sentence (see Obs. p. 62), an 
Auxiliary Sentence is found to perform an individual office, and 
accordingly it is parsed as one Etymological Element of the Principal 
Sentence. After it has been thus parsed, it should itself be an- 
alyzed, and the Words and Phrases of which it is composed be 
parsed according to their respective offices. The same remark is 
applicable to Phrases. [See Exercise 7, above, and 2, below.] 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART II. 

8. " Scaling yonder peak, 

I saw an eagle wheeling near its broio" 



i 



Y Baw Y eagle J 



scaling X Peak ) \™J [ Jj^ jj^f ) 

( yonder ) j H^ 

— bG™3 



brow 

XJEJ 

Scaling yonder ) An Element in the Sentence— an Adjunct— Primary— a 

peak j Phrase— Adjective— Participial— Transitive. 

I An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Subject 

—Wo rd— Pronoun— Person al — Masculine Gender — First 
Person— Singular Number— Objective Case. 

Saw An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Predi- 
cate— Verb— Indicative Mode— Past Tense. 

An An Element in the Sentence— an Adjunct— Primary— Word 

—Adjective— Specifying— Pure. 

Eagle An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— Object- 
Word— Noun— Common— Masculine Gender— Third Person 
—Singular Number— Objective Case. 

Wheeling near 1 An Element in the Sentence— an Adjunct— Primary— 

its brow f Phrase— Adjective— Participial— Intransitive. 

Near its brow... An Element in the Phrase — an Adjunct— Secondary- 
Phrase— Adverbial— Prepositional— Intransitive. 

Analysis of Phrases by the Chart. 

Exercises. 

1. In the beginning (a Prepositional Phrase). 

[injT beginning ^ 

I th * J 

j n .An Element in the Phrase— Principal Element— the Leader 

—a Preposition. 

The An Element in the Phrase— an Adjunct— Word— Adjective. 

Beginning An Element in the Phrase— Principal Element— the Sub- 
sequent — a W t ord — Noun — Object. 

2. " Scaling yonder peak'' 1 (a Participial Phrase). 

I scaling \ peafr J 
^ yonder J 

Scaling An Element in the Phrase— Principal Element— the Leader 

—a Participle— Transitive. 



PHRASEiZ-ANALYSIS. 185 

Yonder An Element in the Phrase— an Adjunct— Word— Adjective. 

Peak An Element in the Phrase— Principal Element— the Subse- 
quent— a Word— Noun— Object. 

3. " The time having arrived?' (an Independent Phrase). 

C time ^j 

V Tbe J [ having arrived) 

The An Element in the Phrase— an Ad junct— Word— Adjective. 

Time .• An Element in the Phrase— Principal Element— the Leader 

— a Noun— Independent Case. 
Having ) An Element in the Phrase— Principal Element— the Subse- 

arrived f quent— a Participle— Intransitive. 

4. To bestow many favors (an Infinitive Phrase). 

(J ^ bestow""""^ favors ^ 
^ many j 

To An Element in the Phrase— Principal Element— the Leader 

— a Preposition. 
Bestow An Element in the Phrase— Principal Element— a part of 

the Subsequent— a Verb— Infinitive Mode— Transitive. 

Many An Element in the Phrase— an Adjunct— Adjective. 

Favors An Element in the Phrase— Principal Element— a part of 

the Subsequent— Object— Word— Noun. 

Rem.— -Exercises like the above are well calculated to prepare 
the Student for Exercises in Syutax ; and when he shall have 
learned the Rules of Syntax, he should combine the above Exercises 
with the application of those Rules. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

PART III. 

SYNTAX. 



Rem.1.— In Part II. we have discussed Words considered as 
Elements of Language ; embracing, 

1. The Classification of Words, according to their offices. 

2. The Modification of such Words as vary their forms to cor- 

respond with changes in their offices. 

Rem. 2.— We have now to consider the Relations of the various 
Elements of Language to one another, in the construction of Sen- 
tences. 

Def. 163.— Syntax treats of the construction of Sen- 
tences by determining the relation, agreement, and ar- 
rangement of Words, and of other Elements. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND FACTS 

To ~be noticed in the Analysis and Synthesis of Sentences 

and Phrases. 

CLASSIFICATION. 
A Sentence is an assemblage of Words, so arranged as to express 
an entire proposition. 

T ~ , ( Grammatical Distinctions, and 

L-Sentences have.. . J BhetoHcal mstinctions . 

Grammatical Distinctions. 

Rem.— The Grammatical distinctions are suggested by the struc 
ture or mutual dependence of the Sentences, and are indicated bj 
the Diagrams of the Sentences. 

II. — In its structure 

c Transitive, 
A Sentence is 1 Intransitive, or 

( Mixeel. 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND FACTS. 187 

III. — In its form 

( Simple, 
A Sentence is J Compound, or 

( Complex. 

IV.— The parts constituting a Complex < Principal, or 
Sentence are \ Auxiliary. 

( Substantive, 

v. — Auxiliary Sentences are in their I Adjective 

°^ ces i Adverbial, or 

I Independent. 

VI. — AnJntransitive Sentence has no Object. 

Kip Let the Pupil make an Intransitive Sentence. 

VII. — A Transitive Sentence has an Object. 

HP Let the Pupil make a Transitive Sentence. 

VIII. — A Mixed Sentence has one or more transitive and one 
or more intransitive Predicates. 

E§p Let the Pupil make a Mixed Sentence. 

IX.— A Simple Sentence has all its Principal Parts single. 
WW Let the Pupil make a Simple Sentence. 

X.— A Compound Sentence has some of its Principal Parts com- 
pound. 

%W Let the Pupil make a Compound Sentence. 

XL — A Complex Sentence contains one or more Auxiliary Sen- 
tences, as Constituent Elements. 
WW Let the Pupil make a Complex Sentence. 
XII.— A Principal Sentence asserts a Principal Proposition. 
XIII.— An Auxiliary Sentence asserts a Dependent Proposition. 

HP Let the Pupil make a Complex Sentence, and distinguish the 
Principal Sentence from the Auxiliary Sentence. 

XIV. — A Substantive Sentence is used as the Subject or the 
Object of a Sentence, or as the Object of a Phrase. 
(Bri^ Let the Pupil make a Substantive Sentence. 

XV.— An Adjective Sentence is a Sentence that is used as an 
Adjunct of a Substantive. 
KIP Let the Pupil make an Adjective Sentence. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III 

XVI.— An Adverbial Sentence is a Sentence that modifies a 
Verb, an Adjective, or an Adverb. 

d^lp Let the Pupil make an Adverbial Sentence. 

XVII.— An Independent Sentence is not grammatically con- 
nected with any other Sentence— or it constitutes a Logical Ad- 
junct of a Substantive. 

2£|p Let the Pupil make an Independent Sentence. 

Ehetorical Distinctions. 

Kemakk — The Rhetorical distinctions are suggested rather by a 
different arrangement of the words composing the Sentences :— They 
are not indicated by Diagrams. 

XVIII. — In their Rhetorical distinctions 

( Declarative, 
Conditional, 

Sentences are I Interrogative, 

Imperative, or 
k Exclamatory* 

XIX.— A Declarative Sentence is a sentence that asserts a 
proposition. 

. ^ , . o i S Positive, or 

A Declarative Sentence may be.., j Negative . 

IW Make a Declarative Sentence— Positive— Negative. 

XX.— A Conditional Sentence is a sentence that asserts a con 
ditional or hypothetical proposition. 

(Ef Make a Conditional Sentence. 

XXL— An Interrogative Sentence is a sentence, so arranged as 
to ask a question. 

flgp~ Make an Interrogative Sentence. 

XXIL— An Imperative Sentence is a sentence used to com 
mand, exhort, or entreat. 

|[gf Make an Imperative Sentence. 

XXIIL— An Exclamatory Sentence is a sentence that expresse 
a sudden or intense emotion. 

flgr Make an Exclamatory Sentence. 

XXIV.— Analysis of a sentence is the act of resolving it int 
its Constituent Elements. 






ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 189 

XXV.— Synthesis of a sentence is the act of properly selecting 
and placing together its Elements. 

( Principal Elements, 

XXVI.— A Sentence consists of < and 

' Adjunct Elements. 

XXVII.— The Principal Elements of a Sentence are those 
Words necessary to make the unqualified assertion. 
ff®" Make a Sentence having Principal Elements only. 

XXVIII.— The Adjuncts of a Sentence are the Elements used 
to modify or describe other Elements in the Sentence. 
&p Make a Sentence having Adjuncts. 

XXIX— The Principal Elements ( The *«*#** 

of a Sentence are ) The Predicate, 

(The Object. 

XXX— The Subject of a Sentence is that of which something 
is asserted. 

XXXI— The Predicate of a Sentence is the Word or Words 
that assert something of the Subject. 

XXXII.— The Object of a Sentence is that on which the act 
expressed by the Predicate terminates. 

IW Let each Pupil make a Sentence, and name the Subject, the 

Predicate, and the Object. 

XXXIII.— The Subject of a Sentence maybe ( A Word, 

XXXIV.-The Object of a Sentence maybe j A Phrase, or 

(A Sentence. 



Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Word Subject. 
Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Phrase Subject, 
Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Sentence Subject. 
tW* Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Word Object. 
Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Phrase Object. 
Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Sentence Object. 



XXXV. — A Word used as 
the Subject or the Object of a 
Sentence may be 



A Noun, \gomrrwn y OT 

9 ( Proper, 
or } Personal, 

XEronoun,\fl atlw '. 

7 j Interrogative, 

{ Adjective. 



190 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III 



fl^~ Let each Pupil make a Sentence having for its Subject— 



1. A Common Noun. 

2. A Proper Noun. 

3. A Personal Pronoun. 



4. A Relative Pronoun. 

5. An Interrogative Pronoun, 

6. An Adjective Pronoun. 

UST" Let the Pupil use the same words as Objects of Sentences. 

, _. -, ^ T ™ C Masculine Gender, 

XXXVL-NorasandPKONOUNS F&minine Gender ,or 

are of the ^ Neuter Gender. 

XXXVIL-KowsandP—s < %£*££», or ' 

are of the ^ Third Person. 

XXXVIIL— Nouns and Pro- < Singular Number , or 
nouns are of the I Plural Number. 

|y Let the Pupil make Sentences having for their Subjects Nouns 
and Pronouns of the different Genders, Persons, and Numbers. 
GUP Now use the same words as Objects of Sentences. 
XXXIX.— The Subject of a Sentence is in the Subjective Case. 
XL.— The Object of a Sentence is in the Objective Case. 

" Another Verb, 



XLL— The Grammatical < A Verb, with 
Predicate of a Sentence is ) or without 



A Participle, 
An Adjective, 
A Noun, 
A Pronoun, or 
^ A Preposition. 

GST Let the Pupil make Sentences containing elements of each J 
yariety of Predicate mentioned. 



XLIL— A Verb in 
Predicate may be the 



Indicative 
Mode, 



Potential 
Mode, 



'Prior Past Tense, 
Past Tense, 

Prior Present Tense, 
Present Tense, 

Prior Future Tense, 
Future Tense. 

"Prior Past Tense, 
Past Tense, 
Prior Present Tense, 
Present Tense. 



Subjunctive, j 
Mode, \ 

Imperative j 
Mode, I 



Past Tense, 
Present Tense. 

Present Tense. 






ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 



191 



Let the Pupil make Sentences having Verbs in each of the 

Modes and Tenses mentioned. 

XLIII-A Verb in Predicate must j TeTS ™ 

agree with its Subject in ) __ ancl T 

f Number. 

XLIV.— The Adjuncts of a Sen- C Trimary or 
tence are , ^ Secondary. 

XL V.— Primary Adjuncts are attached to the Principal Parts 
of a Sentence or of a Phrase. 

XLVL— Secondary Adjuncts are attached to other Adjuncts. 

C Words, 
XL VII. — Adjuncts may consist of. . < Phrases, or 

( Sentences. 

§W Let the Pupil make Sentences containing Word Adjuncts. 
Let the Pupil make Sentences containing Phrase Adjuncts. 
Let the Pupil make Sentences containing Sentence Adjuncts. 

{Compar. 
Posif 
Dimin. 

( Pure. 
Specifying, \ Numeral. 



XLVIIL— Words, 

Phrases, and Sentences - 
used as Adjuncts are. . . . 



or 



t Adverbs, 



Verbal, 

Time, 
Place, 
Degree, 
Manner, 
Cause, 
w etc., etc. 



( Possessive. 

j Trans. 
{ Intrans. 



XLIX.— Conjunctions introduce Sentences and connect Words, 
Phrases, and Sentences. 

k.— A Preposition shows a relation of its object to the word 
Which its Phrase qualifies. 

LI.— An Exclamation has no dependent construction. 

LIL— A Word of Euphony is, in its office, chiefly Rhetorical. 



192 ENGLISH GBAMMAE-PABT ILL 

II. Phrases. 

LIIL— A Phrase is a combination of Words not constituting an 
entire proposition, but performing a distinct office in the structure 
of a Sentence or of another Phrase. 

i Trincipal Elements 

LIV. — A Phrase consists of. \ and 

( Adjunct Elements. 

LY — The Principal Elements of a Phrase are those words 
necessary to its structure. 

(HP Let the Pupil make a Phrase having Principal Elements only. 

L VI.— The Adjuncts of a Phrase are Elements used to modify or 
describe other Elements. 

g2f Let the Pupil make a Phrase having Adjuncts. 

LVII.— The Principal Elements of a < The Leader and 
Phrase are < The Subsequent 

LVIII.— The Leader of a Phrase is the Word used to introduce 
the Phrase. 

LIX— The Subsequent of a Phrase is the Element which fol 
lows the Leading Word as its Object. 

HP Let the Pupil make Phrases, and distinguish the Leaden 

from the Subsequents. 

„. „ • . . C Adjective ) Words 

LX.-The Adjuncts may consist S •' ^ f p HRASES? 1 

of - ( Adverbial ) Sentences, 

IET" Let the Pupil make Phrases having Adjective Wor 

Phrases — Sentences. 

TW . _, . S Transitive or 

LXL-A Phrase is J intransitive. 

LXIL— A Phrase having a Transitive Verb or Participle as 
Principal Element, is a Transitive Phrase. 

Qt^ Let the Pupil make a Transitive Phrase ; 1. Participial 
2. Infinitive. 

LXIIL— A Phrase whose Subsequent is a Noun or a Pronoun, 
or a Verb or a Participle having no Object, is an Intransitive 
Phrase. 

GST Let the Pupil make an Intransitive Phrase ; 1. Prepositional 
—2. Participial— 3. Infinitive— 4. Independent 






ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 193 



LXIY.— A Phrase is, in form . 



Prepositional, 
Participial, 
Infinitive, or 
Independent. 



LXV. — A Prepositional Phrase is one that is introduced by a 
Preposition — having a Substantive Element as its object of relation. 

(j£|p Let the Pupil make a Prepositional Phrase. 

LXYI. — A Participial Phrase is one that is introduced by a Par- 
ticiple, being followed by an Object of an action, or by an Adjunct. 
BJp Let the Pupil make a Participial Phrase. 

LXVII. — An Infinitive Phrase is one that is introduced by the 
Preposition to — having a Yerb in the Infinitive Mode as its Object 
of relation. 

HP Let the Pupil make an Infinitive Phrase. 

LXYIII. — An Independent Phrase is one that is introduced by 
a Noun or a Pronoun — having a Participle depending on it. 
£IP Let the Pupil make an Independent Phrase. 

LXIX. — A Phrase is Compound when it has two or more 
Leaders or Subsequents. 

£|p Let the Pupil make a Compound Phrase — Compound Lead- 
ers — Compound Subsequent. 

LXX. — A Phrase is Complex when one of its Principal Parts 
is qualified by another Phrase. 
£IP Let the Pupil make a Complex Phrase. 

LXXI. — A Phrase is Mixed when it has one or more Transitive, 
and one or more Intransitive, Subsequents. 
G£p~ Let the Pupil make a Mixed Phrase. 

Rem. 1. — Words combined into a Sentence, have a relation to 
each other — a relation which often determines their forms. The 
Principal Modifications of words, as treated in Part II. of this 
work, are those of form — and these forms vary according to their 
relation to other words. 

But the form does not always determine the office of words in a 
Sentence. 

I may say, " Frederick assisted James," 
and " James assisted Frederick." 

Here, although I use the same words and the same form of those 
words, I make two widely different assertions. The difference in 

9 



194 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III 



the assertions in these examples is caused by the change of position 
of the Words. Hence the following laws of Agreement and Ar- 
rangement of words in the construction of Sentences. 

Eem. 2. — As Diagrams are of great service in constructing Sen- 
tences, by serving as tests of the grammatical correctness of a com- 
position, they are inserted in Part III. It is hoped that the 
Teacher will not fail to require the Class to write Sentences which 
shall contain words in every possible condition, and in every va- 
riety of modification. Young Pupils and beginners should be re- 
quired to place the Sentences in Diagrams. 



SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. 

Of the Principal Elements. 

Eem. — While a single Word may be the " sign of an idea," it can 
not alone constitute a Sentence. This can be done only by a com 
bination of Words, properly arranged. Hence, only in their cornbi 
nations are Words subject to Syntax. 

Prhst. — The basis of every Sentence is the Substan- 
tive Word representing the person or the thing subjected 
to discussion. 

By Grammarians, this Word is called the Subject. 



PKIST. 1. 

stantive. 



I. Material of the Subject. 
-The Subject of a Sentence must be a Sub 



Peiist. 2. — Inform the Sub- 
ject may be 



A Word, 

A Phrase, 

A Sentence, 



Noun or 
Pronoun. 
Substantive. 
Substantive. 



Examples. 



1 A Word \ ^ Noun 1. " Virtue secures happiness. " 

' "I (b) Pronoun.^. :t He plants his footsteps in the sea." 

2. A Phrase 3. " His being a minister, prevented his rising to 

civil power." 
4. "To give good gifts and to be benevolent, are often 
very different tilings." 

3. A Sentence 5. " That all men are created equal, is a self-evident 

truth." 






SYNTAX OF THE SUBJECT. 195 

Obs. 1. — The Subject of a Sentence may be ascertained by its 
answering the Interrogatives Who? or What? placed before the 
Predicate. Thus, in the Examples above — 

What " secures happiness ?" Ans. — " Virtue" 

Who " plants his footsteps in / » « tt „ 

thesea?" j- Ans.— Me. 

*38i powIrr e . d . Ms . . r !! ing . !° } A » s -" ^ ^ * ■*■**" 

What " is a self-evident truth?' 7 . .Ans. — " TAotf aW 7?26?i ar£ cre- 
ated equal." 

COMPOUND SUBJECTS. 

Obs. 2. — Two or more Subjects may be common to the same 

Predicate. 

Examples. 

Words 1. " Revelry and Blot pervade the city. 11 

Phrases . . .2. " Receiving calls and returning them occupy the entire day." 
Sentences ..3. Where he went and when he will return are alike unknown to 
me. 

• 
Rem. — Whatever is peculiar to Pronouns, is discussed under the 
Rule for Pronouns. We now proceed to discuss what is common 
to Nouns, Pronouns, Phrases, and Sentences, considered as Sub- 
jects of Sentences. 

II. Limitations of the Subject. 
Obs. 3. — The Subject may be described or limited — 

1. By declaring an attribute of it ; and 

2. By assuming an attribute of it. 

Examples. 

1. Declared.— Arthur sleeps, Arthur is sleeping, Arthur is sleepy. 

2. Assumed.— Sleepy Arthur has no lesson. 

P MN . !.-The Subject is limited j j* J 5-—* 

Pri^". 2. — Every Subject must have a Predicate ex- 
pressed or implied. 

Examples.— 1. Who studies Grammar ? 2. John. 

(1.) 

(~~^o x" stndies X ^^^D C John X" x X~ x ) 

Obs. 4. — The Subject may be limited by Adjuncts. 

And these Adjuncts are Specifying, Qualify- \ 9 

tog, or Verbal Adjectives, and may be. . . .\ ™as™£ 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Examples. 
1. Words.— (a) One Word... A man met me. 
(2.) 



( f^im V ^t Y ™ ^ " A" is a Specifyinj 
CO ~~ ^--^— - — ^ ' Adjective. 



(b) Two Words. . .A poor man met me. 
(3.) 






C man "~ V me t ~Y me *) " poor" is a Quali- 

Clj (poor) ~"^ fymg Adjective. 

-(c) Three Words. . .A poor wayfaring man met me. 
(4.) 

( man Y~h^ m^TY ™ ) " wayfaring" is a 
CT Kv^y^y^^ ® — C^eI~" Verbal Adjective. 

(d) Three Words and a Phrase. . .A poor wayfaring man of grief 
hath met me. 

(5.) 




(e) Three Words, a Phrase and a Sentence. 

" A poor wayfaring maa of grief 
Hath often met me [on my way], 
Who sued [so humbly] for relief, 
[That I could never answer Nay]. 1 ' 

(6.) 

f man Y hath, met * jfxne J 

(A Xpoor X^yfarli^ ^^^loftgsr 

£ who j T su ed J 

Exercises. 
Let each Pupil make a Sentence having 

1. Its Subject limited by aneV' f Reifying Adjective, 
■ Word < 2. A Qualifying Adjective, 

(3. A Verbal Adjective. 

2. Its Subject limited by two Words. 

3. Its Subject limited by three or more Words. 

C 1. Prepositional, 

4. Its Subject limited by a Phrase < 2. Participial, 

( 3. Infinitive. 






AD VERBS- CLASSES. 197 

5. Its Subject limited by a Sentence \ *' transitive, 

I 2. Intransitive, 

6. Its Subject limited by a Word and a Phrase. 

7. Its Subject limited by a Word, a Phrase, and a Sentence. 

8. Its Subject limited by a Logical Adjunct— Word. (See p. 34.) 

9. Its Subject limited by a Logical Adjunct — Phrase. (See p. 34.) 
10. Its Subject limited by a Logical Adjunct — Sentence. (See 

pp. 34, 48.) 






III. The Cokditiox of the Subject. 
(70 

Q Subject ^ jT J 



Kule 1. — The Subject of a Sentence must be in the 
Subjective Case. 

SUBJECT WORD. 

Pki;n". — A Subject Word must be a Noun or a Pronoun. 

(a.) The Form of the Subject. 

Rem. — Because English Nouns are not varied in form to denote 
; the Case (except the Possessive), their Case can not be determined 
by their forms. Hence, much attention is required in giving them 
! their proper position in a Sentence. 

But when the Subject of a Sentence is a Personal Pronoun, or 
the Relative or the Interrogative who, the form indicates the Sub- 
i ject. 

Note 1. — The Subject o? a Sentence should have its 
j appropriate form. 

Examples.— 1. "/come not here to talk." 

2. " You know too well the story of our thraldom." 

3. " Thou art perched aloft on the beetling crag." 

4. " Heeds he not the bursting anguish ?" 

5. " She could not pass the Regents' examination. 1 ' 

6. " It came and faded like a wreath of mist." 

7. " We are watchers of a beacon.'" 

8. " Ye have set at naught all my counsel." 

9. " Theij have gone from their mountain-home." 

10. " Who will show us any good ?" 

11. " When Greek meets Greek, comes the tug of war." 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Errors in the Form of flic Subject 

Rem. 1. — Errors in the forms of the Subject are limited to Pro- 
nouns. 

Rem. 2. — Let the Pupils correct the errors of the following Sen- 
tences, and give the authority for every criticism, by a proper ref- 
erence to Rule I., or to Notes and Observations under the Rule. 

1. " I must protect those "boys, for them are my friends." 

That, is not proper, because " them,'" which is intended for the Subject of " are 
friends," has not the form of the Subject. Change "them" to " they" " the ap- 
propriate form" for the Subject, and the sentence will read— they are my friends. 

Ggp~ Thus correct the following errors by Note 1. 

2. " My sister and me were both invited." 

3. " We have not learned whom else were invited." 

4. " Scotland and thee did each in other live."— Dryden. 

5. ll Tell me in sadness wjuom is she you \oYC."—Shakspeare. 

6. u Him I most loved fell at Gettysburg." 

7. " Them are the boys we saw." 

8. u The rustic's sole response was, l Them's my sentiments.' " 

9. " Has thee been to the yearly meeting ?" 

10. w John and me go to the same school." 

11. u Mother, do you care if us girls have a little dance in the parlor ?" 

1-2. " Anna says that her and me can never learn much unless we study 
evenings." 

13. " Let's you and me take a walk in the grove." 

14. "You are the masters, and not me." 

15. a He will in nowise cast out whomsoever cometh unto him." 

16. " He feared his men would be cut otf, whom he saw were off their guard." 

17. " }Vhomsoe\ev will compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain."— Dy- 
7)ion (Ts Essays. 

18. We are to blame, and not them. 

19. " The king of the Samaritans, whom we may imagine was no small prince, 
restored the prisoners." 

20. " I know not whom else are expected." 

(b.) Position of the Subject. 
Note 2. — In position, the Subject of a Sentence com- 
monly precedes the Verb. • 



Examples.— 1. Anna sings. (S.) (AnnaY"~ 

2. Resources are developed. 

3. Virtue secures happiness. 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBJECT. 199 

[on 1.— When the Verb is in the Imperative Mode, it pre- 
cedes the Subject. 
Example. ■• Turn rs, turn vk, at my reproof. 11 

(»•) 

C yo Y turn J 

[»*J reproof^ 

Exception 2. — When the word there is used only to introduce 

the Sentence;. 
Example*.— i. " There is a calk for those who ireep. 11 

2. " There breathes not a oi 

While friendt in their sadnesi are gathering round. 11 

Exception 8.— By the poets and public speakers, for rhetorical 
'effect. 

Examples, l. " Loud jteofc the thi vdsb." 

2. M Perish the groveling thought. 11 

Exception 4 — A Sentence having a Noun or a Pronoun ia 

Predicate, is often transposed. (See p. 555.) 
Examples.— 1. t: The proper study of mankind i- man." 

2. " A train-band captain, eke was he" 

3. "Hie pavilion were dark waters and thick cloud's." 

Exception 5. — The Subject follows the Predicate, or the first 
Word of the Predicate, in Declarative Sentences, when the Con- 
junction ij\ used to introduce a conditional or modifying Sentence, 
fa omitted. 

Example. '•' Dost thou not, Bassan, lay these dreami aside, 
I']] plunge thee headlong In the whelming tide. 11 

Exception 6. — In Interrogative Sentences, the Subject is placed 
after the Verb, first. 

Examples, j. ;t Heeds re not the bursting anguish V* 

2. is be injured \ 8, Is she kind ? 1 A he a scholar F 5. Must 

J leave thee ?— G. May I go '( 

Obs. 1. — But the [nterrogatiyes who, which, .and W///./, used as 

Subjects, precede their Verbs. 

Examples.— 1 ' Who will show as any good f' 1 

lt What can compensate for lose of character f 11 
11 Which dto# &e /v//y//, (frst V 

0ns. 2.— When one word includes in its signification many 
others, expressed in the same connection, the general term is the 
proper Subject of the Verb; aud the included terms may be re- 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

garded as explanatory, and, therefore, independent in construction. 
(See Independent Case, p. 88.) 

Examples.— "All sink before it— comfort, joy, and wealth.'' 

(10.) 



1 ( fov ? ( wealth 1 V_ 2. -J 



( comfort ~) ( joy ) ( wealth ) 

Some teachers prefer to supply the ellipsis — which is not im- 
proper. 

OMITTED SUBJECT. 

Note 3. — The Subject may be suppressed only when 
the sense is sufficiently clear without it. 

Example.—" Washington, when a hoy, was remarkable for his manliness." 

When lie was a boy. This is correct, because it is sufficiently 
clear. 

Error. — " William came to school early ; but lost his books on 
the way, had no lesson. Say having lost his books on the way, he 
had no lesson. 

Obs. 3. — The Subject of an Imperative Verb is commonly sup- 
pressed. 

Example.—" [ ] Take each man's censure, but [ ] reserve thy judgment." 
Obs. 4. — But it is sometimes expressed. 
Example. — " Go ye into all the world." 

Obs. 5. — It is sometimes accompanied by an explanatory word. 
Example.—" Ye rapid floods, give way." (See " Independent Case.") 

(11.) 

C~ ye jT give j^ way~J 



C floods J 
( rapid ) 

Note 4. — Unnecessary repetition of the Subject should 
be ayoided. 

Obs. 6. — This principle is violated in the following Examples. 
1. The people they are foolish. 
3. Our boys they all go to school. 

Obs. 7.— But this practice is allowable, when necessary to a 
proper rhetorical effect, or to complete the Rhythm in verse. 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBJECT 201 

Examples.— 1. Our Fathers, where are they? And the Propliets, do they 
live forever ? 
2. His teeth they chatter, chatter still. 

Obs. 8. — The agent of an action is commonly the Subject of the 
Sentence, but the agent of an action expressed by an Infinitive 
Verb, may be in the Subjective or in the Objective Case. 

Examples. 

1. Subjective. — 1. John was invited to go. 

2. Objective.— -2. I invited him to go.— 3. It is best for me to remain. 

Obs. 9. — The agent of an action expressed by a Participle is 
commonly in the Possessive Case. 

Examples.— 1. I heard of your going to Boston. 

2. John's joining the army was unexpected by his friends. 

' Obs. 10.— But it may be in the Subjective, in the Objective, and 

in the Independent Case. 

Examples. 

Subjective. — 1. "Scaling yonder peak, /saw an eagle 

Objective.— -2. Wheeling near its brow." 

Independent. — 3. The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises. 

SUBJECT PHRASE. 

Obs. 11. — A Subject Phrase constitutes one distinct Element m 
the structure of a Sentence, and should be construed and parsed in 
the same manner as a Subject Word. Thus, 

1. " To steal is base. 1 " 
(13.) 



[ T j [ steal J Tis basoj 



" To steal" is a Phrase — inform, Infinitive ; 

in office, Substantive ; for it is the Sub- 
ject of " is base." 

2. "Writing letters constitutes my most agreeable employment. 
(14.) 

^WritingXletters ) T constitut es 3 C em P lo y ment ) 
^ I m y Jl agreeable ) 

^ most j 

" Writing letters" is a Phrase— in form, Participial ; . 

in office, Substantive ; for it is the 
Subject of" constitutes employment." 

9* 



- 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Obs. 12. — A Phrase used as the Subject of a Sentence is always 
in the Third Person, Singular Number. 

Obs. 13. — After a Phrase as such has been parsed, it should be 
analyzed, by resolving it into its constituent Elements. Thus, in 
the Phrase " to steal," "To"... is the Leader... a Preposition. 
" Steal". . .is the Subsequent. . .a Yerb. . .Infinitive Mode. . .Pres- 
ent Tense. . .and Object of the Preposition " to." 

And in the Phrase " writing letters," " Writing". . .is the Leader 
. . .a Participle. . .Active Present. " Letters". . .is the Subsequent 
...a Noun. . .Common. . .Third Person. . .Plural Number. . .Ob- 
jective Case. 

Form of the Subject Phrase. 

Obs. 14. — The Phrases commonly used as Subjects of Sentences, 
are the Infinitive and the Participial — Prepositional and Indepen- 
dent Phrases being seldom thus used. (See Clark's Analysis, 

page 109, note.) 

Examples. 

Participial.— -1. Making Sentences is a profitable exercise. 

Infinitive. — 2. To make Sentences according to order requires some skill. 

Up Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Participial Phrase 
for its Subject. 

Let each Pupil make a Sentence having an Infinitive Phrase as 
its Subject. 

Position of the Subject Phrase. 

Note 5. — In Position, the Subject Phrase commonly 
precedes its Predicate. 

Examples.— 1. To do good is the duty of all men. 

% Managing the household affairs now constitutes the sum of 
my employments. 

Obs. 15. — Exception. — The Subject Phrase sometimes follows its 
Predicate. . 

Example.—" The sure way to be cheated is, to fancy ourselves more cunning 
than others.'''' 

Rem. 1. — " To fancy ourselves more cunning than others" is the 
Subject. " Is way," is the Predicate. 

Rem. 2. — This position generally obtains, when the Indefinite 
Pronoun it is placed instead of the Phrase. "It" precedes, and 
the Phrase follows the Yerb. 






SYNTAX OF THE SUBJECT 203 

Example.— It is the duty of all to do good to others. 

(140 

c~ it *Y~~^ duty ) 

foj do Xg° od ) 
others 



Rem. 8. — In parsing Examples like these, we parse " if as the 
grammatical Subject of the Sentence ; and the Phrase as explana- 
tory of the Pronoun it— used to define the Indefinite Word-— and 
• is, in its office, analogous to a Word .used to explain a preceding 
Noun. (See Independent Case, Obs. 2, p. 88.) 

SUBJECT SENTENCES. 

44 That I have taken this old man's daughter is most true." 
(15.) 

y CT^D X ^ 

C * j^have takenj ( daughter ) Y is true ) 

[ man's ~j K^_ JL S 

\thisJlo1dV/ I most j 

Obs. 16. — In Examples like the above we have two Sentences — 
one, Principal, the other Auxiliary or Subordinate, both together 
constituting a Complex Sentence. (See p. 42.) The Auxiliary 
Sentence is an Element in the Principal — the Subject, and should 
be parsed accordingly. 

Thus, in the above complex Sentence, the Principal Sentence is 
Simple, Intransitive, having one Subject — " That I have taken this 
old mail s daughter ;" one Predicate — u is true ;" and one Adjunct 
— " most" 

Obs. 17. — A Sentence used as the Subject of another Sentence, is 
always in the Third Person, Singular Number. 

Obs. 18. — After an Auxiliary Sentence has been parsed, as one 
Element in its Principal Sentence, it should be analyzed by resolv- 
ing it into its constituent Elements. Thus, in the Auxiliary Sen- 
tence given above, 

" That" Introduces the Sentence ; hence, a Conjunction. 

" I" Is the Subject of its Sentence ; hence, a Substantive. 

" Have taken" . Is the Predicate ; a Verb and a Participle. 

" This" Is an Adjunct of " man" ['s] ; hence, an Adjective. 

" Old" Is an Adjunct of " man" ['s] ; hence, an Adjective. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

" Man's" Is an Adjunct of " daughter ;" hence, an Adjective. 

" Daughter".. .Is the Object of "have taken ;" hence, a Substan- 
tive. 
Obs. 19. — The Subject Sentence is commonly — not always — in- 
troduced by the Conjunction " that." (See Examples below.) 

Position of Subject Sentences. 
Note 6. — A Subject Sentence is placed before its 
Predicate. 

Examples.— 1. " That ive differ in opinion is not strange." 

2. " How he came oy it, shall be disclosed in the next chapter." 

Obs. 20.— Exceptions.— When the Pronoun it is substituted for 
a Subject Sentence, the Pronoun precedes, and the Sentence for 
which it stands is placed after the Verb. 

Example.—" It is probable that John will come.' 1 '' 

(16.) C It j( is possible } 

( that) 

l 

^John ) ( will come ) 

Obs. 21. — In parsing Sentences like the above, we are to parse 
" it" as the grammatical Subject of the Principal Sentence, and the 
whole Auxiliary Sentence as explanatory of the word " it"— a 
Logical Adjunct of " it." (See " Logical Adjunct," p. 34.) 

Exercises. 

EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

$W Let the Class make Sentences, which shall be correct ex- 
amples of the several Notes, Observations, and Remarks, under 
Hule 1. 

MODEL. 

1. Friend after friend departs. 

(17.) I Friend ^ departs ) 
IterJ l frientf) 
ANALYSIS. 

Principal Elements \ ®g**«*" '" Fnend" ) Simple Sentence, 
( Predicate, departs. ) Intransitive. 

Adjunct Element ..\% f 7 w %*%*-, u A - '. , „ P1 

( Of the Predicate . . " After friend" . a Phrase. 

The Leader After a Preposition. 

The Subsequent Friend a Noun. 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBJECT 205 

PARSED BY THE CHART. 

" Friend" is an Element in the Sentence. 

Principal Element. 

Subject. 

Word. 

Noun. 

Common. 

Third Person. 

Singular Number. 

Subjective Case — according to 
Rule 1st. The Subject of a Sentence must be in the Subjective Case. 

$W Thus analyze all the Sentences in the following Examples, 
and parse the Subjects of each. 

Additional Examples. 

2. There is no union here of hearts, 

That finds not here an end ; 

3. Were this frail world our final rest, 

Living or dying none were blest. 

4. Thus star by star declines, 

Till all are passed away ; 

5. As morning high and higher shines, 

To pure and perfect day : 

6. Nor sink those stars in empty night, 

But hide themselves in heaven's own light. 

7. " Rewarding and punishing actions by any other rule, Would appear much 
harder to be accounted for by minds formed as he has formed ours." — Bishop 
'Butler. 

8. " What time he took orders, doth not appear. 1 '— Life of Butler. 

9. " That every day has its pains and soitows, is universally experienced." 

10. " My hopes and fears start up alarmed." 

11. " Who shall tempt, with wandering feet, 

The dark, unfathomed, infinite abyss ?" 

12. " Not a drum was heard, nor a funeral note" 

13. " Not half of our heavy task was done." 

14. " Few and short were the prayers we said." 

15. " A chieftain's daughter seemed the maid" 

16. " Her satin snood, her silken plaid, 

Her golden brooch, such birth betrayed." 



206 ENGLISH GBAMMAR—PABT III. 

SYNTAX OF THE PREDICATE. 
(l 8.) 

( Subject X 1>redicate X^ J 



'1. Absolutely, 

REM.-The Predicate \ J p^J^f' 

declares 4 Imperatively, or 

5. Interrogatively, 



1. Existence, 

2. State, 

3. Condition, 

4. Change, or 

5. Act performed 

or received. 



I. Material of the Predicate. 
Pri]*. — There can be no Predicate without a Verb. 

Obs. 1.— The Verb in Predicate may stand alone, or it may have 
other words before or after it. 

Obs. 2.— The various forms of Predicates are exhibited in the 

following 

Examples. 

1. A Verb Boys study. 

We recite. 

2. A Verb and a Participle Boys are studying. 

Lessons are recited. 

3. A Verb and an Adjective ■. Boys are studious. 

Lessons are difficult. 

4. A Verb and a Noun Boys are students. 

Books are helps. 

5. A Verb and a Pronoun It is I. 

Was it you? 

6. A Verb and two Participles Boys have been studying. 

Lessons have been recited. 

7. A Verb, a Participle, and an Adjective Boys have been studious. 

Lessons had been difficult. 

8. A Verb, a Participle, and a Noun We have been boys. 

They have been classmates. 

9. A Verb, a Participle, and a Pronoun Had it been we? 

It had been we. 

10. AVerb and a Verb Boys do study. 

We can recite. 

11. A Verb, a Verb, and a Participle Boys may be studying. 

Lessons should be recited. 

12. A Verb, a Verb, and an Adjective Boys should be studious. 

Books may be beneficial. 

13. A Verb, a Verb, and a Noun Boys slwuld be students. 

Books may be companions. 



SYNTAX OF THE PREDICATE. 207 

14. A Verb, a Verb, and a Pronoun Can it be you ? 

It might be he. 

15. A Verb, a Verb, a Participle and a Participle . Boys should have been studying* 

Lessons will have been recited. 

16. A Verb, a Verb, a Participle and an Adjective . Boys should have been studious. 

Lessons may have been difficult. 

17. A Verb, a Verb, a Participle and a Noun. . . .Boys might have been students. 

We should have been friends. 

18. A Verb, a Verb, a Participle and a Pronoun.lt may have been he. 

Who could it have been ? 

Obs. 3. — From the above complete list of Predicates of Simple 
English Sentences, we see, 

1. That the Predicate may consist of one, two, three, or four 

words. 

2. That a Yerb may be a complete Predicate. 

3. That more frequently a Yerb is only a part of a Predicate. 

4. That the first word must be a Verb. 

5. That the last word may be a Verb, a Participle, an Adjec- 

tive, a Noun, or a Pronoun. 

6. That the last word in Predicate is the Principal Word. 

7. That the other words are Auxiliary— indicating Voice, 

Mode, or Tense in addition to the office of asserting the 
existence, the attribute, the office, or the act of the Subject. 

Hence, 

Obs. 4. — In parsing a Predicate, we should first parse the entire 
Predicate as one individual element, and then distinguish the various 
offices of its several words. [See Model, p. gcg.] 

Obs. 5. — Besides the above forms and combinations of words in 
Predicate, we have certain idiomatic forms of Sentences, in which 
Phrases occur in Predicate. 

Examples.— 1. I am to go, ' ( I j am i to j~gQ j 

for I must go. C~~\ Y must go ") 

2. John was in hopes of receiving the prize, 
Equivalent. — John hoped to receive the prize. 



, „ »'«•) 






3. " To feel is to be fired," ' \to| feel $ { Is fa/"be , fired ^ 

4. " And to believe, Lorenzo, is to feel," ^to/believ e )Yis \y >) feel ) 

Equiv— If we believe, we feel, and if we feel 
we are filled. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Rem. — The use of Phrases in Predicate is not often elegant, and 
should generally be avoided when other equivalent forms will ex- 
press the same thought. 

Exercises. 

Let each Pupil make a Sentence having for its Predicate— 

1. One Verb. 2. Two Verbs. 

3. One Verb and a Participle 

4. One Verb and an Adjective. 

5. One Verb and a Noun. 

6. One Verb and a Pronoun. 

7. Two Verbs and a Participle. 

8. Two Verbs and an Adjective. 

9. Two Verbs and a Noun. 

10. Two Verbs and a Pronoun. 

11. One Verb and two Participles. 

12. One Verb, a Participle, and an Adjective. 

13. One Verb, a Participle, and a Noun. 

14. One Verb, a Participle, and a Pronoun. 

15. Two Verbs, a Participle, and an Adjective. 

16. Two Verbs, a Participle, and a Noun. 

17. Two Verbs, a Participle, and a Pronoun. 

18. Two Verbs and two Participles. 

II. Modifications of the Predicate. 

Rem. — As the Subject is limited (see p. 000)> 

1. Logically, by its Predicate, and 

2. Grammatically, by its Adjuncts ; so 

Prin. — The Predicate may be modified, 

1. Logically, by its Object, and 

2. Grammatically, by its Adjuncts. 

Def. 164.— Predicates that have Objects are called 
Transitive Predicates. 

Examples.— 1. Boys study Grammar. 

2. Columbus discovered America. 

Def. 165. — Predicates that have no Objects are called 
Intransitive Predicates. 

Examples.— 1. Boys play. 2. I might have been studying '. 

3. America was discovered. 



SYNTAX OF THE PREDICATE. 209 

Def. 166. — Predicates that have Adjuncts are called 
Modified Predicates. 

Exa3Iples.— 1. Charles calls often. 

2. " We have come from the mountains." 

! Words, 
Phrases, or 
Sentences. 

Examples. 

Words 1. " We shall soon go hence." 

2. " On, still on, he presses, and forever." 

Phrases 3. " Time slept on flowers." 

4. " I have been sitting by the hillside." 
Sentences .. 5. " IVhere'er we turn, thy glories shine." 

6. " If you have a proper self-respect, you will not be lavish of 
your company to any one." 

Pri^. — All modifications of Verbs, Participles, or Ad- 
jectives in Predicate are Adverbs. But Nouns and Pro- 
nouns in Predicate may be modified or limited by 
Adjectives. 

Peik. — Adjuncts of the Predicate j Logical and 
may be ( Grammatical* 

Obs. 1. — Logical Adjuncts of Predicates generally consist of In- 
dependent Phrases substituted for Adverbial Sentences. 

Examples. 



1. The bell having rung, we went to ( we y went """) 

dinner - Aap itote^ 

2. When the bell had rung, we went to ( we ")( went ) 

dinner ' QvW I fl'-^meO 

Xhad , rung ) 



Rem. — " The bell having rung," is an Independent Phrase. (See 
p. 25.) " When the bell had rung," is an Auxiliary Sentence. (See 
p. 45.) In the above examples, both the Sentence and the Phrase 
alike modify " proceeded," as to time. But 
The Phrase, having no word making a grammatical connection 

with the Predicate, is said to be a Logical Adjunct ; whereas, 
The Sentence — being joined to the Predicate by the Adverbial Con- 
junction " when" — is a Grammatical Adjunct. 




210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Exercises. 
Let each Pupil make a Sentence* whose Predicate shall have 

1. No Object 

Anna sings. C Ann a X >sul * a 

2. One Object. ( Clal ir"X^^gYRrammar" 

Clara studies Grammar. ^ r j - ^^ 

3. Two Objects . f we Jr invited 

We invited Lucy and Jennie. ^ — . ^=-= 

4. One Word Adjunct I Anna X 8ip g 8 

Anna sings sweetly. 

5. Two Word Adjuncts C Lucy X /gg^ ) 

Lucy comes here often. \__X 3 

6. One Phrase Adjunct C CIara X studliT) 

Clara studies at home. U '> 

7. Two Phrase Adjuncts C Father V comes ) 

Father comes from the office at j j ) [ ) > 

noon. _t ) 

8. One Word and One Phrase C Lucy X ~- c alls ^ 

Lucy often calls on us. C often -> LI — . 

9. Two Words and one Phrase C Ernest Y speaks ) 

Ernest generajly speaks well at v <• y? y7 — y . 

school. v JK . v — * * ? 

10. One Intransitive Sentence Adjunct. > -^ ^— >, ~ ^^ 

I will go if you will. QQ 

11. One Transitive Sentence Adjunct., f J()hn V studies ) 
John studies when he attends ^ — ■ " ' " — — 

school. . < — j — * 

12. One Word, one Sentence, and one v^— *v * "\ 

Phrase I We A Bncceed J 

We seldom succeed in school unless ( )|j n ) ^ ) 

we obey commands. v / Y ' C 

13. One Logical Adjunct C we 3C returnecl 3 

The cars having departed, we re- 

turned. ( ,- a ;- 3 ,) 

CluJ ^ having , le{<T^ ) 

Prut.— The same Subject may have more than one 
Predicate. 

Examples. 
Two Predicates.." It came and faded like a wreath of mist." 
Three " . . " The boys respect, obey, and love their teacher." 
Four " . . " He bounds, pervades, controls, encircles all." 

[Sec Diagrams, pp. 44, 55, 58. 

III. Suppeessed Predicates. 

Note 1. — One or more words in Predicate may be sup- • 
pressed when the sense is not thereby weakened nor ob- 
scured. 

— — 



SYNTAX OF THE PREDICATE. 211 

Examples. 
The 1st Word. . 1. " Most happy — they whom least his arts deceive." 

2. " If— heard aright, it is the knell of my departed hours." 
The 2d Word . .3. " Til— to the woods away." 

4. " They may— and should return to allegiance." 
The Zd Word.. 5. " May you never be deceived as I have been—." 
The entire Predicate..^. " — To arms." " —To your tents, O Israel I" 

7. "To whom thus Eve — ." 

8. " Where's the boy but three feet high, 

That's made improvement more than I ?" 

Exercises. 

Let the Pupils name the words in the following Predicates whose 
suppression will contribute to conciseness, force, or elegance. 

1. I'll go away. 2. Go back to thy punishment, false traitor. 

3. I shall go to the city and shall buy me a hat. 

4. John went and James went and George went to the city. 

5. I can go and will go to the lecture. 

6. Ernest has studied and has recited his lessons well. 

7. The other boys can learn and should learn the same lessons, 

8. You can go and can return on the same day. 

9. Anna can sing better than Ernest can sing. 

10. I wish Harmon were as much interested as Arthur is interested. 

11. Is Mary taller than Albert is tall? 

12. The stars are as bright as the sun is bright. 

Note 2. — No part of the Predicate should be omitted, 
when the sense is thereby altered or obscured. 

UUP Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors. 

1. " I shall avoid it altogether if it can be— 1 ' 

2. " Illustrations make more vivid impressions than can be— by reasoning." 

3. " A poet, by force of genius alone, may rise higher than a public speaker — " 

4. William assisted George more than Charles 

5. " A squirrel can climb a tree quicker than a boy" — — — 

6. John obeys his teacher as cheerfully as James — 

7. William secured his position before Ernest — 

8. " Ralph assisted his father more than James" — — 

9. " I— studied my lesson since school opened." 

10. " I — see you again to-morrow." 

11. — " You ask for my opinion ?" 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART III. 

IV. Active Predicates.— Passive Predicates. 

Obs. 1. — The Predicate may declare an act 

1. Done by its Subject " Active Voice" 

2. Done to its Subject " Passive Voice" 

Examples. 

( 1. We love. 2. We see. 
(1.) Action of Us Subject < 3. Columbus discovered America. 
( 4. John is building his house. 

( 1. We are loved. 2. We are seen. 
(2.) Action to its Subject < 3. America was discovered. 
/ 4. John's house is being built. 

Obs. 2. — Taste and judgment should be exercised in deciding 
which form— Active or Passive— should be used. But, 

Obs. 3. — Generally we use the Active form when the principal 
thought centers on the Agent. 

Examples.—" Virtue secures happiness. " Temperance promotes health. 
Here " virtue" and " temperance" indicate the prominent thoughts. 

Obs. 4.— We use the Passive form, when the principal thought 
centers on the recipient of the action, or when we do not know or 
do not care to mention the agent. 

Examples.— 1. "Manhood is disgraced by the consequences of neglected 
youth. " 
2. " The crew were saved, but the ship was lost. 1 ' 

Here, "manhood," "crew," and "ship" are most prominent in 
thought. 

Note 3.— When the Agent of an act is made the Sub- 
ject, the Active Voice should be used. 

Examples.— 1. Mr. Dewey has examined his class. 

2. " The village master taught his little school." 

Note 4. — When the recipient of the action is made the 
Subject, the Passive form should be employed. 

Examples.— 1. The class has been examined. 

2. The school ivas taught by Dewey. 

Obs. 5. — An Active Transitive Predicate may be changed to the 
Passive Intransitive form without materially altering the sense. 

Examples. 
Active. . .1 saw him. (21.) r~ 

Passive. .He was seen by me. 



I 


^y^ saw ^ him J 


£ Ho 


X^ was seen "^ 




W— 55 1 



SYNTAX OF THE PREDICATE. 213 

K~ote 5. — Only the direct object can properly become 
the Subject of a Passive Predicate, 

Examples. — 1. The teacher gave John a long lesson. 

Wrong.. 2. John was given a long lesson by the teacher. 
Correct.. 3. A long lesson was given to John by the teacher. 

Exception. — But an Intransitive Predicate modified by a Phrase, 
sometimes takes the Passive form — the Leader of the Phrase being 
retained in Predicate. (See p. 117.) 

Note 6. — The progressive form in the Active voice has 
its corresponding progressive form in the Passive.* 

Examples.— 1. John is reciting his lesson. 

Active.. 2. " While he was harvesting his wheat, the flood came and 
swept it all away." 
3. John's lesson is being recited. 
Passive. A. While his wheat ivas being harvested, the flood came and 
swept it all away. 

Obs. — We have certain idiomatic forms of expression in which 
one Voice is pnt for the other. 

1. The Passive ) 1. " You are mistaken" 2. " You are come too late," 
for the Active. J for You mistake. for You have come too late. 

2. The Active ) 1. The bell is tolling, 

for the Passive. ) for The bell is tolled ; i. e., 

Some one is tolling the bell. 

2. I have a lesson to learn this evening, 
for I have a lesson to be learned, or 

I have to learn a lesson. 

3. "American marble polishes better than the Italian." 

4. " Basswood cats easier than oak." 

* By a modern error — unfortunately sanctioned by some authors — action is 
sometimes improperly predicated of a Passive Subject. 

Examples.— "The house is building" for the house is being built; which 
means, the house is be[com]ing built, i. e., people are at work upon it ; but the 
house does not act. 

This error, extended, would show itself more palpably. Thus : The field is 
plowing — the grass is mowing — the wood is chopping — the lesson is studying— 
r while the boy was whipping by the parent, the room was sweeping, the dinner 
was eating, the cow was milking." 

Let us decide that all these are wrong, and go back to the sensible doctrine 
that a Subject— being not the agent but the recipient of the action— requires the 
Passive form. 

" While the boy was being whipped, the room was being swept, and the cow 
was being milked'' 1 by some one, are pure English, sanctioned by our best 
writers, English and American. The feeble argument against this construction, 
u that it brings two like verbs or a verb and its participle together in the same 
Predicate," is sufficiently answered by the fact that the same is true of other 
verbs. I did do it, John has had the measles. " Robert would not will his farm 
to his nephew." 



214 ENGLISH GBAMMAR—PART III. 

§^T Let the Pupils correct the following 

Erkors.— (See Note 5.) 

1. Silas has been given a severe reprimand by the teacher. 

2. Our minister was donated a horse and carriage. 

3. Since then we have been given very good advice. 

4. I have often been asked my opinion on that subject. 

5. William was given a hundred dollars to test his economy. 

6. I was told that story when I was a little boy. 

Progressive Form.— (See Note 6.) 

7. While John's dinner was eating, his corn was planting. 

8. His barn was raising on the day his hay was cutting. 

9. These sentences are writing to show what an effort is making to confound 

the Active with the Passive Voice. " —Pray you avoid it." 

V. The Verb ik Predicate. 

Kem. — While all Verbs in Predicate have one office in common 
— that of making the assertion — they differ as to the force of their 
Predications. 

Obs. 1. — Some Verbs have Objects, and hence are called Transi- 
tive Verbs. 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 

Note 7. — A Verb which is necessarily Transitive re- 
quires an Object in construction, expressed or implied. 

Obs. 2. — The appropriate Object of a Sentence should not be 
made the Object of a Phrase. 

Example.— " Transitive Verbs do not admit of a Preposition after them.'" — 
Bullion's Grammar, p. 91, edition of 1847. 

Corrected. — Transitive Verbs do not admit Prepositions after 
them [to complete the Predicate]. 

Obs. 3. — Some Yerbs have no Objects, and hence are called InA 

transitive Verbs. 

Note 8. — A Verb necessarily Intransitive should not 
have an Object, except dy poetic license or for other rhetor- 
ical purposes. 

Example. — " I sit me down, a pensive hour to spend." 

Obs. 4. — Some Verbs may have Objects or may not — according - 
to their connections with other words. If the mind rests simply 



SYNTAX OF THE PBEBICATE. 215 

on the act, or on the time, place, or manner of the act, it may be 
itransitive ; as, 

Clara studies at home— Anna reads well. 

But if thought is directed to a being or thing as the object of the 
act, the Verb is Transitive — 

Clara studies algebra— Anna reads her Bible often. 

Obs. 5. — Some Verbs have their Objects limited to words of their 
own signification. 

Examples.— 1. " I dreamed a dream that wai not all a dream." 
2. " I have fought a good fight." 

Obs. 6. — Some Verbs, commonly used Intransitively, become 
Transitive by virtue of a Prepositional Prefix. 

Examples. — 1. John goes to school "goes" is Intransitive. 

2. John undergoes punishment " undergoes" is Transitive. 

3. The tower looks well " looks" is Intransitive. 

4. The tower overlooks the city " overlooks" is Transitive. 

Obs. 7. — In such examples of Compound Verbs in Predicate, it 
is generally — not always — the Preposition in Composition that makes 
the Verb Transitive. 

Obs. 8. — Verbs made Transitive by this use of Prefixes, can not 
elegantly be used in the Passive Voice. 

Examples.— 1. "John undergoes punishment."— We may not say punish- 
ment is undergone by John. 
2. " The tower overlooks the city."— Nor, the city is overlooked 
by the tower. 

Obs. 9. — In their Rank, Verbs differ. Some declare the Attri- 
bute, and hence are called Principal Verbs. 

Examples.— We study.— They recite.— Boys should study. 

Obs. 10. — Some Verbs in Predicate indicate the circumstance of 
Mode, Tense, Voice, or some modification of the assertion, and hence 
are called Auxiliary Verbs. 

Examples.— I do study.— You have studied.— Boys should study. 

Xote 9. — In the construction of Sentences, those Aux- 
iliary Verbs should be used that will best express the 
Voice, Mode, and Tense intended. 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III 

The Auxiliaky Verb be. 

Obs. 1. — We use the Auxiliary Verb be — in all its modifications 
— before a Present Participle, to make the progressive form of the 
Active Voice. 

Examples. — 1. Robert is attending lectures. 

2. The gardener was trimming vines. 

Obs. 2. — We use the Auxiliary Verb be — in all its modifications 
— before a Past Participle, to make the Predicate Passive. 

Examples. — 1. The lectures were well attended. 

2. The grape-vines are trimmed. 

Obs. 3. — We use the Verb be — in all its modifications — before 
Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns in Predicate, as a Copulative 
Verb, to give a declarative expression of the Attribute. 

Examples.— Ellen is fair. —It is /.—He is a poet. 

Obs. 4. — The Verb be — in all its forms — used as a complete 
Predicate, asserts simple existence. It is always Intransitive. 
Examples.— 1. They are. 2. I am. 

3. " Before Abraham was, I am. 1 ' 

Rem. — The Verb be is never properly followed by another Verb 
in the same Predicate. 

Have — had. 

Obs. 5. — The Auxiliary Verb have — in all its modifications — is 
used to indicate a Prior Tense. 

Examples. 
Prior Present.— I have finished my work. 

Have you been to church to-day ? 
Prior Past. — John had gone before I arrived. 

Had your coming been previously announced ? 
Prior Future. — John will have finished his studies. 
Participle. — " Having seen the elephant, the rustic was satisfied.'* 
Infinitive.— We ought to have attended the lecture. 

Obs. 6. — As a Principal Verb, have — in all its modifications — is 
used to assert possession. It is always Transitive. 
Example.—" The pupil has his rights as the teacher has his." 

Rem. — This Verb have, is never properly followed by another 
Verb in the same Predicate. 



SYNTAX OF THE PBEDICATE. 217 

Do — did — done. 

, Obs. 7. — The Auxiliary Verbs do and did are used to give em- 
pilosis or intensity to their Principal Verbs. 

Examples. 
Present, do.— We do greatly rejoice in Mary's good fortune. 
Past, did.— Bid Claudius waylay Milo ? 

Obs. 8.— In colloquial style the Auxiliary Verbs — in all their 
modifications — are often used as a substitute for the Verbs or Par- 
ticiples in Predicate. 

Examples. 

do 1. M Clara studies more diligently than you do — than you study.'''' 

done. . 2. " Waste not your time as I have done— as I have wasted mine. 

have. . 3. Had you studied as faithfully as I have, you would have had your lesson. 

are 4. Louis is not quite so old as you are. 

can . . .5. Anna played that piece as well as you can. 

Obs. 9. — As Auxiliary Verbs, when shall and will are used 
simply to assert a predication, they are signs of the Indicative Future, 
But when used to assert a present volition or enforce an obligation, 
they are signs of the Potential Present. 

In the Indicative Mode, shall is properly used with the First Per- 
son, and will with the Second and Third. 

In the Potential Mode this order is reversed, 

Examples. 
Indicative Future.— We shall have our lessons before the bell strikes. 

You will soon see who has the lesson. 

John will soon be here. 
Potential Present.— We will leave good lessons, or none. 

You shall not do it. 

John shall go to the lecture with you. 

But, 

Obs. 10. — In modern practice shall and will are interchangeable, 
one being often used for the other — sometimes not inelegantly, but 
often improperly. 

I will drown : \ f ( I shall drown. 

No one shall help me ; ) ( No one will help me. 

Obs. 11. — The Auxiliaries may, can, must (in the Present), and 
might, could, would, and should (in the Past), are signs of the 
Potential Mode. 

10 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Obs. 12. — All the Auxiliary Verbs except " be" and " have," re« 

quire Predicate Verbs after them. 

Obs. 13. — Those Auxiliary Verbs that are also used as Principal 
Verbs, have not the same force and signification in each condition. 

Examples. 

As an Auxiliary. . As a Principal Verb or Participle. 

Bo ... I do love you. I do as John does. 

Have.. I have seen him. I have had the ring. 

Will . . Will you come to-morrow ? John willed me his watch. 

Be Shall I he carried ? To be, contents his desire. 

" . . . .We are sawing our wood. Our wood is being sawn. 

Mode. 
Note 10. — That Mode of a Verb should be used which 
will most clearly convey the sense intended. 

Indicative. 
Obs. 1. — When we declare or predict an actual event, or a condi- 
tional event assumed as true, we properly use the Indicative Mode. 
Examples.— 1. God lives. 2. Man is mortal. 
, 3. If John has gone, he has gone at your request. 

4. Thou art a scholar. 5, The eclipse will occur to-morrow. 

Potential. 
Obs. 2. — We assert desire, duty, probability, possibility, and volition 
by words in the Potential Mode* 

Examples.— 1. Desire.—" I would thou wert cold or hot." 
2. — Duty. — We should have perfect lessons. 
3.— Probability.— ■" I may do what I shall be sorry for." 
4. — Possibility. — You can learn this lesson easily. 
5. — Volition. — " I will be honest if I cannot be rich." 

Subjunctive. 
Obs. 3. — A Verb used to denote a conditional fact or a contin- 
gency should have the Subjunctive form. 

Examples. — 1. " Were I Alexander, I would accept these terms." 
2. "So would I were I Parmenio." 

Obs. 4. — But if the condition is assumed as unquestionable, the 
Verb should be in the Indicative Mode. 
Examples.— 1. " If the boat goes, I shall go." 

2. If John has offended you, he will make due apology. 

* For a List of Auxiliary Verbs that are signs of the Potential Mode, see p. 132. 



SYNTAX OF THE PREDICATE. 219 

Rem. 1.— The Subjunctive Mode is found only in Auxiliary Ad- 
verbial Sentences. 

Obs. 5. — A Sentence is made conditional— 

1. By the Subjunctive form of the Verb, without a 

Conditional Conjunction. 
Example.— Were I a teacher I would require perfect lessons. 

2. By its being introduced by the Conjunctions if, 

though, unless, etc., when the Mode may be Indic- 
ative, Potential, or Subjunctive. 

Examples. 
Indicative.— 1. " If the earth turns over, why do we not fall off?" 
2. Though Ernest is young, he is not boyish. 
Potential.— 3. If we would be wise, we must study. 

4. " Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar.'* 
Subjunctive.— 5. " If I were rich, I would build a hospital.' 1 

6. " Were I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." 

Imperative. 

Obs. 6. — We express command, entreaty, or advice in the use of the 

Imperative Mode. 

Examples. 

Command. .1. " Make way for Liberty." 

2. " Charge, Chester, charge." 
Entreaty — 3. " Give us this day our daily bread." 

4. " Angels, and ministers of grace, defend us." 
Advice 5. " Avoid it, turn from it and pass away." 

6. Let all the ends thou aimest at be thy country's, thy God's, 
and Truth's. 

Obs. 7. — The Imperative Mode is limited to the Present Tense. 

Obs. 8. — The form of the Imperative is often elegantly used for 
the Future Indicative. 

Examples.— 1. Let us sing, for We will sing. 

2. "Let there be light, 1 ' for Light shall be. 

Hem. 2. — In analyzing and parsing Sentences like these we are to 
proceed as in ordinary Imperative Sentences. Parse a Sentence as 
you find it. 

Obs. 9. — We have certain forms of expression which are analo- 
gous, if not equivalent to the Imperative — having the force without 
the form. 






220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III 

Examples. 

Indicative.— 1. "Fall he that must, beneath his rival's arms, 

And live the rest, secure of future harms.'" — Pope. 
Potential.— 2. •' Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain." 

Obs. 10. — The Imperative Mode is found only in Principal Sen- 
tences. 

Obs. 11. — The Infinitive Mode is not used as a Predicate Verb. 

HP Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors.— (See p. 218.) 

1. " I wish I was a gipsy. 1 ' 

2. " If I was a teacher, I should give shorter lessons." 

3. " Take care lest the boat leaves before you shall get up." 

4. " The boy looks as if he was discouraged.'" 

5. " If I was the king, I would conciliate the Commons." 

6. " Shall you promise obedience in future, if I be lenient now ?" 

7. " I should think you ought to be more attentive to your studies." 

8. "It would seem that John has incurred the displeasure of the teacher." 

9. " If I was a Greek, I should resist Turkish despotism." 

10. If you was in my place, you would the better appreciate my motives. 

11. If he be as wise as he seem, he shall prove a good teacher. 

12. If thou sendest me away, I will be miserable indeed. 

13. He spoke as if he was angry. 

14. I bade him to take heed lest he makes life a failure. 

15. Watch the thoughts of thy heart, lest thou sinnest with thy lips. 

16. If I was to decide, your hopes would brighten. 

Exercises. 

Let the Pupils determine the Voice, Mode, and Tense of each 
Verb in the following Sentences : 

1. The study of science tends to make us devout. 

2. I have a temple in every heart that owns my influence. 

3. I have loved this vain world too much. 

4. You will have accomplished a noble deed before you go hence. 

5. Who can observe the careful ant, and not provide for future 
want ? 

6. May one be pardoned and retain the offence ? 

7. We icill not have this man to rule over us. 

8. " ' Make way for Liberty,' he cried, — made way for Liberty, 
and died" 

9. Were I as rich as Croesus, I would not be thus extravagant. 



SYNTAX OF THE PREDICATE. 221 

10. When gold comes down to par, specie payments will be re- 
sumed. 

11. If one dollar will bay twelve pineapples, what will buy two ? 

12. If pineapples were as common as apples, would we prize them 
as highly ? 

13. " Then turn we to her latest tribune's name." 

Tekse. 

Rem. 1. — The time of an act or event is represented generally by 
the/arm of the Verb, and definitely by the use of Adjuncts. Hence, 

Note 11. — That form of the Verb should be used which 
will most clearly express the time intended. 

Obs. 1. — A proposition which is always true, or which includes 
the past, the present, and the future, should be expressed in the 
Present Tense. 

Examples.— 1. " The lecturer demonstrated that the earth is round. 1 ' 

2. " Did he say that the moon revolves from east to west ?" 

Obs. 2. — In Complex Sentences, the Tense of the Principal Sen- 
tence does not necessarily control the Tense of the Verb in the 
Auxiliary Sentence. 

Examples. 
Past and Present. — 1. " I said in my haste,' all men are li^rs." 

2. " Copernicus first demonstrated that the earth 
revolves upon its axis." 
Present and Future.— 3. " Those that seek me early shall find me." 
Future and Prior Present. — 4- You will never know how much I have loved you. 
Present and Prior Past.— 5. I can not tell where I had seen him. 

Exception. — In Auxiliary Sentences introduced by wnen, we use 
the Present form for the Future when the Verb in the Principal 
Sentence is future. 

Examples.— 1. I shall go when the boat leaves. 

2. Will you be here when Ernest comes ? 

Obs. 3. — An act or event in a time absolutely past, is best expressed 
in the Past form of the Yerb. 

Examples.— 1. Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope." 
2. Grant commanded the army of the James. 

Obs. 4 — By a figure of speech (see " Vision," p. 000) often used 
in animated discourse, the Present form is put for the Past. 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III 

§ 

Examples.— 1. Hark ! by the red lightning's fitful glare 

What bark is plunging 'mid the billowy strife ? 
2. Now itmounts the wave, and rises threatening to the frown* 
ing sky. 

Obs. 5.—= An act or event in a period of past time reaching to the 
Present, is best expressed in the Prior Present form. 
Examples. — 1. " I have never seen the righteous forsaken." 
2. Grant has occupied the chair of state one year. 

Obs. 6. — This form is never properly used in asserting an act 
absolutely and definitely past. 

Examples. 

Incwrect . .1. I have seen William yesterday. 

2. Phillips has lectured last evening on " the Lost Arts." 
Corrected. .1. I saw William yesterday. 

2. Phillips lectured last evening on " the Lost Arts." 

Obs. 7. — An act or event predicted or promised at a future time, 
is best expressed in the Future form of the Verb. 
Examples.— 1. We shall not all sleep. 

2. Will Sherman be our next President ? 

Exception. — In Adverbial Sentences used to denote time, the Pres- 
ent is often used for the Future and the Prior Future. 
Examples. — 1. I shall go when the train starts — will start. 
• 2. " Till I come, give attention to reading." 

3. " ' And when we are parted and when thou art dead, 

O where shall we lay thee V — his followers said." 

Obs. 8. — When we wish to represent an act or event as finished 
at a future time, we use the form of the Prior Future Tense* 

Examples.— 1. I shall have completed my sixtieth year before this work will 
be published. 
2. "You will have learned something of astronomy before the 
next transit of Venus will occur." 

Rem. 2. — In familiar style it is sometimes allowable to throw 
back those Future Tenses one degree — thus, 

Future and Present.— 1 ' I shall arrive there before you do" for 
Prior Future and Future.— " I shall have arrived there before you will." 

* The above are the common laws for the use of the Tenses. But poets, ora- 
tors, and speakers in animated discourse, and writers in easy colloquial style, 
often claim license to disregard these laws, provided the " thoughts intended"- 
are thereby conveyed " without fraud or fallacy." 






SYNTAX OF THE PREDICATE. 223 

Obs. 9.— The variations for the Potential Mode are rather varia- 
tions of form than to indicate distinctions of time — this Mode being 
generally indifferent as to time. 

Example. — " O, would the scandal vanish with ray life, 
Then happy were to me ensuing death 1" 

" Would " is Past in form, but Future in sense. 

ESP* Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors. — {See p. 221-2.) 

1. The preacher declared that God was love. 

2. During all last week I have not seen George at school. 

3. If you will go to the city to-morrow, please call for me. 

4. Clara has been taking lessons on the organ all last summer. 

5. I may go to-morrow, but I could not go to-day. 

6. Will that Alesma damage the hair ?— I should not think it could. 

7. What is the diameter of the earth ? — " I could not tell. 11 

8. When did you see Albert last ? — " I see him yesterday. " 

9. " Mr. Smith, would you be so kind as to help me work that problem ?" 

10. " At what hour to-morrow might we expect you to come ?" 

11. " I could n't say positively. It might be nine or ten.'' 

12. " I have read six books of Virgil before I went to college." 

13. Will we go to-morrow, or do we wait another day ? 

The right Verb in Predicate. 
Note 12. — That Verb should be used which will cor- 
rectly and fully express the fact intended. 

Common Errors— \. " There let him lay."— Byron. 

2. " To you Ijly for refuge." — Murray. 
Cotrecled.— There let him lie.— To you ljlee for refuge. 

%W* Let the Pupils correct the following 
Errors.— {See Note 12.) 

1. " Respectable farmers never lay down in the field." 

2. ** I have no objection to your setting down occasionally." 

3. " While I was talking, Sarah raised up to leave the hall." 

4. " I expect you was out late last night." 

5. " William has been falling trees in the maple grove." 

6. " I would avoid it altogether if it can be done." 

7. " Thou sawedst every action."— Guy's Grammar, p. 46. 

8. " What are become of so many productions ?" 

9. " Ought you to take those peaches without leave ? I do not think I had." 

10. " He had n't ought to do it. Had he ?" 

11. " His face shown with the rays of the sun." 

12. "Bad you rather go or stay ? I had rather go." 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- PART III. 

Note 13. — A Verb should not be used for its participle 

in Predicate. 

Example.— James ought not to have went. 
Corrected.— James ought not to have gone. 

Note 14. — A Participle should not take the place of its 
Verb. 

Example.— " The work is imperfect ; you done it too hastily." 
Corrected.— The work is imperfect ; you did it too hastily. 

$W* Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors.— (See Notes 12, 14,) 

1. " Julia is always chose first." 

2. " Ains worth has spoke twice and has wrote once. 1 * 

3. tl The best apple was gave to Anna." 

4. " You ought not to have broke that chair." 

5. " I seen you when you done it." 

6. " I had rather have did it myself." 
1. Ernest has broke his sled. 

& I have not been spoke to on that subject. 

9. "Ten o'clock, and my ' little boy Blue' hasn't drove the sheep to pasture 
yet." 

10. " I have ate all I wish." 

11. " Gold has fell ten cents in ten days." 

12. " I have never sang in Church since." 

Peesok and Number. 

Eem. — Most Yerbs in Predicate are varied in form — inflected — to 
correspond with the modification of their Subjects. Hence, 

Eule 2. — A Verb in Predicate must agree with its 
Subject in Person and Number. 

Obs. 1. — This Rule requires that the form of a Yerb be deter- 
mined by its Subject, according to established usage : — Thus, 

In the Singular Number, 

For the First Person, the Eadical form is used ; as — I love, I walk. 
For the Second Person^ Solemn style, the Suffix st or est is used ; 

as — Thou lovest, thou walkest. 
For the Third Person the Suffix s is used ; as— He loves, John walks, 



SYNTAX OF THE PREDICATE. 225 

Exception 1. — By an ancient idiom — now seldom used, except 
by the poets — the termination etli is given to the Third Person 
Singular ; as — He hath, he doth, he walketh. 

Example?.— 1. " How doth the busy bee improve each shining hour." 
2. "He that lovetJi wine and oil shall not be rich." 

Exception 2.— The Verb foe has its peculiar forms in the Pres- 
ent Tense and in the Past. (See Conjugation, pp. 134.-5.) 

Obs. 2. — In the Plural Number, Verbs are not varied inform to 
indicate Person and Number. 

Examples.— We 1 

You I wa ^' * ove ' rec he, see. 
TheyJ 

Prik. — Only the first ivord in Predicate is varied in 
form, for any purpose. 

Note 15. — One Subject in. the Singular Number re- 
quires its Verb to be in the Singular. 

Eem. — This note applies alike to Words, to Phrases, and to Sen- 
tences. 

Examples. 

Word Subjects 1. " Earth keeps me here awhile. 1 ' 

2. " Knowledge reaches or may reach every home." 

Phrase Subjects 3. " My leaving home does not please you." 

4. u To dispute the doctor requires fortitude. 11 

Sentence Subjects.. 5. "That all men are created equal, is a self- 
evident truth." 
6. t; How he came back again, doth not appear." 

|gp" Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors.— {See Bule 2, and Note 15.) 

1. " Where are you, my boy ? Here I are." 

2. " Such a clatter of sounds indicate rage." 

3. " This addition of foreign words have been made by commerce." 

4. " And many a steed in his stables were seen." 

5. " There are pupils in this class, whose progress haveheen astonishing." 

6. " He dare not call me coward." 

7. "Does thou love to go to school ?" 

8. " I am mindful that myself is strong." 

9. " I refer to this that yourself hath spoken." 

10. " I have read what thou says of our peculiarities."— The Friend. 

10* 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

11. " When thoii most sweetly sings."— Drummond. 

12. " Thy nature, Immortality, who Tcnoiv est ?"— Everest' s Grammar. 

13. " Who dare avow himself equal to the task ?" 

14. " Every error I could find, have my busy muse employed." 

15. " They pray together much often er than thou insinuates. " 

16. " Simply to give alms to the poor, do not constitute the sum of Christian 

duty." 

17. " Receiving and secreting stolen goods, are punishable by our municipal 

laws." 

18. " How the boys all escaped from drowning ivere a wonder to us all." 

19. " That Milton should love the dollars as he does, astonish all his friends." 

20. " Variety of numbers still belong 

To the soft melody of ode or song." 

Note 15. — Two or more Singular Subjects, taken sepa- 
rately, require the Verb to be Singular. 

Eem. — This law applies alike to "Words, to Phrases, and to Sen- 
tences. 

Examples. 

Word Subjects 1. " William or Warner has my knife." 

2. " Disease or poverty follows the lazy track of the 

sluggard." 
8. " My poverty, but not my will, consents."— Shales. 
4. " Every phrase and every figure which he uses 
tends to render the picture more lively and com- 
plete."— Blair. 
Phrase Subjects... 5. "Writing letters or reading novels occupies her 
evening hours." 

6. " To be or not to be, is the question." 

7. " To shoot or to be shot, was my only alternative." 
Sentence Subjects.. 8. " That my client aided in the rescue, or that he was 

present at the time of it, does not appear from 
the evidence adduced." 

IJF 3 Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors.— (See Note 15.) 

1. " Neither history nor tradition furnish such information." 

2. "Neither Charles nor his brother were qualified to support such a 

system." 

3. " Nor war nor wisdom yield our Jews delight." 

4. "He or his deputy were authorized to commit the culprit." 

5. " For outward matter or event fashion not the character within." 

6. To shoot or to be shot, were my only alternative. 

7. Heading novels or lounging about the village are alike damaging to the 

moral character. 

8. How we could escape or where we were to go, were to be decided at once. 






SYNTAX OF THE PREDICATE. 227 

9. That he is rich or that you are poor are not material to the question of 

relative happiness. 
10. " Praise from a friend, or censure from a foe, 
Are lost on hearers that our merits know." 

Note 16. — A Collective Noun, indicating Unity, re- 
quires its Verb to be in the Singular Number. 

Examples.— 1. " A nation has been smitten." 

2. " The Senate has rejected the bill." 

3. " Congress has adjourned." 

Exception. — The Logical Subject of a Sentence is sometimes 
the Object of a Phrase used to qualify the Grammatical Subject. 
Then, when the Object of the Phrase is plural in form, and indi- 
cates that the parts of which the number is ccmposed are taken 
severally, the Verb should be Plural. 



Example.— A part of the students 
have gone. 



LJJ [o tj students ) [ 



have gone 




Here " students" — the name of many taken severally— is the 
Logical Subject of " have left," and requires the Yerb to be Plural, 
although "part," the Grammatical Subject, is Singular; or, we 
may regard the Modified Subject as Plural — made so by the Plural 
Noun " students," in the limiting Phrase — and the Yerb takes the 
Plural form. (See Diagram.) 

Obs. 3. — But Nouns not Collective are not varied in number by 
their Adjuncts. 

Examples.— 1. " The progress of his forces ivas impeded." 

( pro gress 
^Thejl 

2. The selection of appropriate examples requires taste. 

3. " All appearances of modesty are favorable and prepossess- 

ing.'" — Blair. 

Caution. — Avoid the awkward and improper use of Partitives 
as Subjects, when they properly belong in Phrase Adjuncts of the 
true Subjects. Thus, 

Incorrect. — "This sort of Adverbs commonly admit of comparisoD." — Bu- 
channan's Grammar. 

Corrected. — Adverbs of this sort commonly admit of comparison. 

"Every kind of comfort and convenience id ere provided." — Com. Sch. Jour, 

Better.— Comfort and convenience of every kind were provided. 

" This species of words were numerous." 

Better.— Words of this species were numerous. 



228 ENGLISH OBAMMAB—PABT III. 



" Let the Pupils correct the following 
Erroes.— (See Note 16.) 

3. "A series of exercises in false grammar are introduced toward the end." 
—Frost's Grammar. 

2. The number of the names were about one hundred and twenty."— Ware's 

Grammar. 

3. tk The number of school districts have increased since last year." 

4. " In old English, this species of words were numerous." 

5. " Have the legislature power to prohibit assemblies ?" 

6. " Above one-half of them was cut off before the return of spring." 

7. " The greater part of their captives was sacrificed." 

8. " While still the busy world is treading o'er 

The paths they trod five thousand years before." 

9. " Small as the number of inhabitants are, their poverty is extreme. 
10. " The number of bounty-jumpers are enormous." 

Note 17.— A Collective Noun, indicating Plurality, 
requires its Verb to be in the Plural Number. 

Examples.— 1. " The people are foolish, they have not known me." 
2. " The peasantry are ever jealous of the nobility." 

Obs. 1.— Collective Nouns, which always require a Plural Verb 
are the following : 

Gentry— mankind— nobility— people— peasantry. 

Obs. 2.— Those which may have Verbs in the Singular or Plu- 
ral, according to the sense, are the following : 

Aristocracy— army— auditonj— committee— congress-church— family— meeting 
—public— school— remnant— senate. 

Eem.— The Unity or Plurality of a Collective Noun is generally 
determined by its Adjuncts, or by the nature of its Predicate Verb. 
Examples.— 1. " The committee was appointed by the rhair." 

2. " The committee were unanimous in sentiment." 

3. " The committee have never been able to agree." 

HP Let the Pupils correct the following 

Erkors. — (See Note 17.) 

1. The minority is attempting to control the majority. 

2. But the majority is not disposed to submit to its control. 

3. The rabble is prepared for any event. 

4. The peaceable people watches their action with anxiety. 

5. While the whole thoughtless youth is eager for the strife, 

6. The nobility is alarmed, and 

7. Mankind in general is apprehensive of a general anarchy. 



SYNTAX OF THE PREDICATE. 229 

Note 18. — One Subject in the Plural Number should 
have a Verb in the Plural. 

Examples. 

Word Subjects 1. " The boys are reciting." 

2. " They that seek me early shall find me." 
Exception 1. — Nouns, Plural in form, often constitute the titles 
of books. Such names, used as Subjects of Sentences, require 
their Verbs to be Singular. 

EXAMPLES. / f Pleasures ) \ 

1. "The 'Pleasures of Hope* teas f^rhe) |o i ) iiope ) ( was recited \ 
recited by the class. 1 ' I ^ r ■ — • ' 



2. "The 'Lives of the Martyrs' is 



1st 



class 



now out of print. ' ' Cjh* — > 

Exception 2. — A Plural Subject, modified by a Phrase whose 
Subsequent is the Logical Subject of the Sentence, and Singular 
in form, may have a Singular Verb. 

Example. ft _ t hird3 ^ V "\ 

CT M hair J [ has faUen } 
Two-thirds of my hair has fallen off. I ^J®£3 h l "T"ofr> 

Let the Pupils correct the following 



ErpvOks.— {See Note 18.) 

1. " is those your sentiments J" 

2. " Such phenomena is not often witnessed." 

3. " Was there no spiritual men then ?" 

4. " To him giveth all the prophets witness." 

5. " There seems to be but two general classes." — Day's Grammar* 

6. " Hence arises the six forms of expressing time."— lb., p. 3T. 

7. " There was several other grotesque figures that presented themselves." 

8. " ; Rills from the Fountain of Life' were published by Lippincott. " 

9. " Five times five is twenty-five." 

10. " And five times six is thirty." 

11. " Three apples from twelve apples leaves nine apples." 

12. Three added to nine makes twelve. 

13. "Dickens' ' Household Words' are among the best of his works." 

Note 19. — Two or more Subjects connected by and 
require the Verb to be in the Plural. 

Examples. 
Word Subjects 1. Anna and Clara are studying their lessons. 



( Anna Y V* \ 

^ ( & ) \ are studying I lessons J 

f Clara % W J 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

2. The boys and the girls were preparing for the exami- 
nation. 

Phrase Subjects — 3. " Chewing tobacco and smoking cigars disqualify a 
young man for mental imp rovement."—Cutcheon. 
4. "To spin, to weave, to knit, and to sew, were once a 
girl's employments. 
Sentence Subjects. .5. " Read of this burgess— on the stone appear, 

How worthy he! how virtuous ! and how dear/"— 
Crabbe. 

Exception 1.— Two or more Singular Subjects so intimately 
associated in thought as to constitute a logical unity, may have a 
Verb in the Singular Number. 

Examples.— 1. " The head and front of my offending hath this extent."— 

/Shakspeare. 

i c head r v y \ 

( ( * ) I hath J extent I 

y( ^T~) J\ A J 

USJ H offending ) C^lJ 



C. m 7 ) 

2. " There is a peculiar force and beauty in this figure. 1 '— Karnes. 
Exception 2.— Two or more Singular Subjects preceded by the 
Adjectives each, every, or no, require the Verb to be in the Singu- 



Q boy 
C every } 


X* 


■ x } 






C Rirl 


"Y" was 


eager } 


I every ) 




(for ) recitation 




" C,the_J 



lar Number. 



Rem.— The Predicate of the 
first Subject is suppressed 
— being obviously under- 
stood. 

2. "Each day and each hour is fraught with consequences too 

momentous for human contemplation." 

3. "No fortune and no condition in life makes the guilty mind 

happy." 

Exception 3. — Two or more Singular Subjects connected by 
and — one taken affirmatively and the other negatively — require 
the Verb to be in the Singular Number. 

Examples. — 1. " My poverty, but not my will, consents." — Shakspeare. 

3 




Eem. — The Predicate of the second 
Subject is suppressed, while its 
) Adverb is retained. 



Exception 4. — Two or more Singular Subjects, indicating the 
same person or thing, require the Verb to be in the Singular Num- 
ber. 

Example.—" The saint, the father, and the husband prays.'* 



SYNTAX OF TEE PREDICATE. 231 

2. "His moral integrity, and not his wealth, makes him re- 
spected." 




Exception 5. — Whenever a Verb immediately follows the first 
of two or more Subjects, it must agree in Person and Number 
with it, and it is understood after the others. 

Example.— Here joy abounds, and gratitude and love. 



|£ip Let the Pupils correct the following 



Errors.— {See pp. 229-31.) 

1. ** Two and two is four, and five is nine." 

2. " The flax and the barley was smitten. 11 

3. " The Mood and Tense is signified by the Verb." 

4. " Every word and every member have their due weight and force." 

5. "Each day and each hour bring their portion of duty." 

6. "No law, no restraint, no regulation are required to keep him in 

bounds." 

7. " Prudence, and not pomp, are the basis of his fame." 

8. "Not fear, but fatigue, have overcome him." 

9. " The President, not the Cabinet, are responsible for the measure." 

10. " Every old man, and every woman and child, were removed to a place oi 

safety." 

11. " What is the latitude and longitude of Boston ?" 

12. " Neither Anna nor Ernest have permission to go." 

13. " Neither Clara nor Ruby are remarkably beautiful." 

14. " One eye on death and one full fixed on heaven, 

Becomes a mortal and immortal man." — Young. 

15. The designer and not the engraver are at fault. 

16. " Our Maker, Governor, and Guide demand our homage." 

IT. " Each thought we cherish and each word we utter are known to Him." 

18. " No vice of the heart and no sin of the tongue have ever escaped His 
notice. 11 

19. " Dissipation and not late hours have made him an invalid." 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Persok. 

Note 20. — Two or more Subjects, taken separately and 
differing in Person, should have separate Verbs, when 
the Verb is varied to denote the Person of its Subject 

Example.— You are in error, or /am. 

Q~ ifou Y are ) 

( or ) \^i nj error 3 

c x )r~ ™ ) 

S3 x j 



Obs. — But when the Verb is not varied to denote the Person, it 
need not be repeated. 

Examples.— 1. You or /must go. ^~~orl — [ must so 

2. The doctors or you are in error. 



Note 21. — When the Subject of a Verb differs in Per- 
son or Number (or both) from a Noun or Pronoun in 
Predicate, the Verb should agree with its Subject rather 
than with the word in Predicate.* 

Examples.— 1. " Thou art the man." 2. Clouds are vapor. 
3. A horse is an animal. 

Grammatic Fallacies. 

Rem. — Let the Pupil correct the errors in the following Sen- 
tences, and give the authority for every criticism, by a proper ref- 
erence to Rule 2, or to Notes and Observations under the Rule. 

1. "The rapidity of his movements were beyond example. 1 '— Wells. 

2. u The mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown. " 

3. " The Past Tense of these Verbs are very indefinite with respect to time." 

—Bullion's Grammar, p. 31. 1840. 

4. " Everybody are very kind to her.'" — Byron, 

5. " To study mathematics, require maturity of mind." 

6. " That they were foreigners, were apparent in their dress." 

7. " Coleridge the poet and philosopher have many admirers." 

8. " No monstrous height, or length, or breadth appear.*" — Pope. 

9. " Common sense, as well as piety, tell us these are proper.'" 

* The young Pupil often finds it difficult to decide which of the two Substan- 
tives is the Subject and which the Noun in Predicate. The following test will 
decide this point: 

When one term is generic and the other specific, the former belongs in Predi- 
cate — the latter is the Subject. Thus, in Example 3, "animal" is a generic 
term — " horse" is specific. We can not say, an animal is a horse, for not every 
animal is ahorse; but every horse is an animal. Hence, "horse" is the Sub- 
ject, and " animal" is in Predicate. (See Independent Case, p. 85, Obs. 5.) 



ORAMMATIC FALLACIES. 233 

10. " Wisdom or folly govern us."— FisWs Grammar. 

11. " Nor want nor cold his course delay."— Johnson. 

12. " Hence naturally arise indifference or aversion between the parties." 

13. " Wisdom, and not wealth, procure esteem." 

14. " No company likes to confess that they are ignorant." 

15. " The people rejoices in that which should cause sorrow." 

16. " Therein consists the force and use and nature of language." 

17. " From him proceeds power, sanctiflcation, truth, grace, and every other 

blessing we can conceive." — Calvin. 

18. " How is the Gender and Number of the Relative known ?" 

19. " Hill and dale doth boast thy blessing."— Milton. 

20. "The Syntax and Etymology of the language is thus spread before the 

learner."— Bullion's Grammar. 

21. " In France the peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use 

of wooden shoes."— Harvey. 

22. " While all our youth prefers her to the rest."— Waller. 

23. " A great majority of our authors is defective in manner." 

24. " Neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven." 

25. " Nor he nor I are capable of harboring a thought against your peace." 

26. " Neither riches nor fame render a man happy." — Day's Grammar. 

27. " I or thou art the person who must undertake the business." 
2S. " The quarrels of lovers is a renewal of love." 

29. " Two or more sentences united together is called a compound sentence." 

— Day's Grammar. 

30. " If I was a Greek, I should resist Turkish despotism." 

31. " I can not say that I admire this construction, though it be much used." 

— Priestly' 's Grammar, p. 172. 

32. " It was observed in Chap. 3, that the disjunctive or had a double use." — 

Churchill's Grammar. 

33. " I observed that love constituted the whole character of God." 

34. "A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was verse." 

35. " Had I commanded you to have done this, you would thought hard of 

it."— J. Brown. 

36. " I found him better than I expected to have found him." 

37. " There are several faults which I intended to have enumerated." 

38. " An effort is making to abolish the law." 

39. " The Spartan admiral was sailed to the Hellespont." — Goldsmith. 

40. " So soon as he was landed, the multitude thronged about him." 

41. " Which they neither have nor can do."— Barclay. 

42. " For you have but mistook me all the while."— Shalcspeare. 

43. " Who would not have let them appeared."— Steele. 

44. " You were chose probationer."— Spectator. 

45. " Had 1 known the character of the lecture, I would not have went." 

46. " They don't ought to do it."— WatMns. 

47. " Had I ought to place ' wise' in Predicate with ; makes r "—Pupil. 

48. " Whom they had sat at defiance." — Bolingbroke. 

49. " Whereunto the righteously and are safe." — Barclay. 

50. " She sets as a prototype, for exact imitation." — Bash. 

Rem. — After correcting the above examples, the Pupil should 
analyze and parse them — using the Model given on p. 205, or 
those on pp. 183-4. 



234: ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 



SYNTAX OF THE OBJECT. 

Rem. 1. — Not all Sentences have Objects. This fact has led some 
authors to regard the Object of a Sentence, not as one of the Princi- 
pal Elements of a Sentence, but as a sort of modifier of the Predicate.* 

Rem. 2. — The Syntax of the Object embraces its material, its 
form, its modification, its position, and its relation. 

I. Material of the Object. 

Pri^". — The Object of a Sentence must be a Substan- 
tive. 

( A Word, 

The Object may be J A Phrase, or 

( A Sentence. 

Examples. 
A Word-— 1. A Noun. Virtue secures happiness. 
2. A Pronoun. Thee we adore. 
A Phrase.— 3. Participial. I doubted his having the ring, 
4. Infinitive. We love to attend school. 
A Sentence.— 5. Transitive. John said he had the ring. 

6. Intransitive. Did you ascertain who went? 

Word Object. 



f Subject Y Predicate. Y 

A Word Object is either 



Object 



J A Noun or 
\ A Pronoun. 

Examples. 
1. A "Noun.— Proper. Grant conquered Lee. 

Common. Did you see the eclipse ? 
Abstract. I commended his firmness. 
Collective. Did you attend the convention ? 
Verbal (Act.) 9L did not admire the singing. 
2. A Pronoun.— Personal. " Help me, Cassius, or I sink." 

* It is true that the Object does, in a sense, limit its Predicate ; but it is as 
true that the Predicate limits its Subject by declaring an act or an attribute of 
it. Hence, if we regard the Predicate as a distinct Element in a Sentence, we 
should for the same reason rank the Object of a Transitive Sentence as a Prin- 
cipal Element. 

To say that the Object is simply a modifier of the Predicate, is to confounc 
an Object with an Adjunct, a Substantive with an Adverb— thus destroying the 
fundamental principles of analysis. 



SYNTAX OF THE OBJECT 235 

Belative. All whom he sees, ot>ey him. 
Interrogative. Whom seekest thou ? 
Adjective. WJiat sought they thus afar ? 



II. FORM OF THE OBJECT. 

Rem.— English Nouns have the same forms in all the Cases — ex- 
cept when used as Adjuncts. Hence, 

Obs. 1. — A Noun is known to be the Object of a Sentence by its 
properly answering the questions whom t or what f placed imme- 
diately after the Predicate. 

Examples.— 1. We visited William— visited whom? . . . William. 
2. John gave me a book— gave what ? .. .book. 

Rem. — Most Pronouns have peculiar forms to denote the Object 
(see p. 93). Hence, 

Obs. 2. — A Pronoun is known to be the Object of a Sentence 
generally by its form, and always by its answering the question 
whom f or what ?■ placed immediately after the Predicate. 

Examples.— 1. Eobert visited us— visited whom ?. ..us. 

2. We had invited him— invited whom ? ... Bobert, 

III. Limitations of the Object. 

Rem. 1. — We have seen (p. 195) that the Subject is limited by the 
Predicate and by its Adjuncts ; and (in p. 208) that the Predicate is 
limited by its Object and by its Adjuncts. 

Rem. 2. — While the Subject, the Predicate, and the Object sus- 
tain logical relations to one another, the Object is grammatically 
limited only by its Adjuncts. 

C Words, 

The Adjuncts of the Object consist of ■< Phrases, or 

( Sentences. 

Examples. 
Words.— 1. " The blossoms deck the bough." 

2. " We have had our May-day garlands." 
Phrases.— 3. " I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow." 
4. " The foam of the billows already I see." 
Sentences.— 5. I have been visiting the man who sent me to college, 
6. " Them that honor me, I will honor." 



236 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 



Obs. — The Object maybe limited or defined by Logical Adjuncts. 
Examples.— 1. " I thank thee, Boderic, for the word. 1 ' 

2. There thou shalt find my cousin, Beatrice. (See p. 42.) 

Exercises. 
fl£lp Let each Pupil make a Sentence — 

1. Whose Object has one 

Word Adjunct 

We saw the eclipse. 

2. Two Word Adjuncts ( ^~ V ~ 

We saw the last \ A 

eclipse. 

3. One Word and one r 

Phrase V 

We saw the eclipse 
of the moon. 

4. One Word and one / ~~ v~ 

Sentence C We I 

We saw the eclipse 
which you pre- 
dicted, 

5. One Word, one Phrase, f ^ V~ 

and one Sentence . . . ^ A- 

We saw the eclipse 
of the sun, ivhich 
you predicted. 




DC 



oclipso 




( John ~"X predicted )fwhich ") 



([UP Let each Pupil make a Sentence for each of the above 
Diagrams. 



Let each Pupil make a Sentence whose Object is limited 



(1) by a Pure Specifying Adjective See 

(2) by a Possessive Specifying Adjective. . . 

(3) by a Numeral Specifying Adjective 

(4) by a Qualifying Adjective 

(5) by a Verbal Adjective 

(6) by an Interrogative Adjective 

(7) by a Proper Adjective 

(8) by a Logical Adjunct 

(9) by a Prepositional Phrase 

(10) by a Participial Phrase. 

(11) by an Infinitive Phrase 

(12) by a Transitive Sentence 

(13) by an Intransitive Sentence 

(14) by a Compound Sentence 

(15) by a Complex Sentence 



p. 103 

104 
104 
102 
104 
103 j 

103 ; 

34 

24: 

25 
25 
42 
41 
43 
46 



SYNTAX OF THE OBJECT. 237 

IV. CO^DITKOT OF THE OBJECT. 

Exile 3. — The object of an action or 
of a relation 
must be in the Objective Case. 

Obs. 1. — Action is expressed by Verbs and 
by Participles. 
Relation is expressed by Prepositions. 

Subject. Predicate. 



C~ Virtue jf secures J[ hap piness J 

Obs. 2. — Only the Pronouns I, thou, he, she, it, and who, and 
their Plurals, vary their forms for the Objective. (See pp. 93, 95.) 

Note 1. — Pronouns that are varied in form to denote 
the Case, should have their appropriate forms for the 
Objective. 

Examples.— 1. " Them that honor me, I will honor." 
2. " And must I leave thee, Paradise ?" 

Exception 1. — The Possessive form of Nouns and Pronouns is 
sometimes, though rarely, used in the Objective Case. 
Example.— John is a friend of mine. (See p. 90.) 

$W Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors. 

1. " They will not go without she and J." 

2. " Who did Gertrude marry ?" 

3. " Vain pomp and glory of the world, I hate ye." 

4. " I can not tell who I saw there.'" 

5. " I took it to be he who we had visited at Homer." 

6. " I do not remember who they are for." 

7. " There are a few who, like you and /, drink nothing but water." 

8. " All debts are cleared between you and I"." 

9. " And to poor we, thine enmity's most capital." 

10. " We should discriminate between him who is the sycophant and he who 
is the teacher." 

Rem. — In constructing Sentences special attention is required in 
giving to the Object of a Sentence its appropriate 






238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Position. 

Note 2. — In position, the Object of a Sentence com- 
monly follows the Predicate. 

Examples.— 1. " Virtue secures happiness." 

2. " The king of shadows loves a shining mark" 

Exception 1. — By the poets, and for rhetorical effect, the Ob 
ject is often placed before the Predicate. 

Examples.— 1. "Him, from my childhood, I have known." 
2. " New ills that latter stage await." 

Exception 2. — A Relative or Conjunctive Pronoun, being the Ob 
ject of a Sentence, is placed before its Predicate. 

Examples.— 1. " Mount the horse which I have chosen for you. 1 ' 
2. " We serve a Monarch whom we love — 
A God whom we adore." 

Two or more Objects. 

Obs. 3. — A Sentence may have two or more Objects when they 

are connected in construction by Conjunctions, expressed or implied 

Examples.— 1. " God created the heaven and the earth" 

2. " Now twilight lets her curtain down, 

And pins it with a star." 

Obs. 4. — The Objects of a Compound Sentence sometimes con- 
sist of different Words, indicating the same being or thing. 

Examples.— 1. " By this dispensation, we have lost a neighbor, a friend, a 
brother." 
2. " Thus she addressed the Father of gods, and King of men." 

Obs. 5. — But one Word used to limit the signification of another, 
can not be in the same construction ; and hence, the two Words 
are not Objects of the same Verb, unless they are compounded and^ 
parsed as one Element. 

Examples.— 1. Have you seen Coleridge, the philosopher and poet ? 
2. " We visited Naples, the home of our childhood." 



C jg X 




Rem. — " Home" is a Noun, used to describe " Naples," not as an 
Adjective, but as an equivalent name of the same place. 

"Philosopher" and "poet" are Substantive appellations of the man, 
" Coleridge.'' 

(See " Logical Adjuncts" and " Independent Case," p. 88.) 



SYNTAX OF THE OBJECT 239 

Note 3. — Verbs of giving, and some others, are often 
followed by two Objects — one of the Verb and the other 
of a Preposition suppressed. 

Examples.— 1. Anna gave me a rose. 

2. Charles asked me my opinion. 

3. They carried the child home. 

( They Y carried Y child J 

Rem. 1. — Here it will be seen that u child" is the proper Object 
of " carried." They did not cany the " home." But they carried 
the child to some place — and that place was called " home." 

Rem. 2. — In parsing examples like the above, the ellipsis should 
be supplied. Thus, " to his home" is an Adjunct of " carried." 
Hence, an Adverbial Phrase. 

" Home," as a Bepresentative of the Phrase, is an Adverb. 

" Home," as an Element in the Phrase, is a Noun — Object of to 
understood. Hence, in the Objective Case. (See p. 180.) 

Obs. 6. — The Verbs make, esteem, regard, consider, elect, bid, dare, 
feel, hear, see, and some others, are often followed by an Infinitive 
Phrase, having its Preposition (and sometimes the Verb) understood. 
Examples.— 1. " Lorenzo, these are thoughts that make man man." 
These are thoughts that make man [to be] man. 
2. " Teach them obedience to the laws.' 1 

Teach them [to tield] obedience to the laws. 

Rem. — In examples like these, the second Noun or Pronoun is 
the Object of the -Verb understood or used in Predicate with it. 
Thus, " man" is used in Predicate with " to be," or " to become," 
understood, and " obedience" is the Object of" yield." 

Examples.— 1. " Intemperance makes a man [to become] a fool." 
2. "He maketh the storm [ ] a calm." 



C~ He jf maketh ~ y storm _) 

Obs. 7. — By another construction, in which the force of the 
suppressed Preposition is still more obscured, the Verbs appoint, 
call, choose, constitute, create, dub, elect, make, name, and proclaim, 
sometimes have two Objects — one direct, and the other indirect. 



24:0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Examples.— 1. They named him John. 



(^ They Y named Y~ him ^Johnj 



2. And /Simo?i he surnamed Peter. 

Rem. — In Example 1, " him" is the direct Object — " John" the 
remote Object ; and is, logically considered, a part of the Predicate 
— a title acquired by the action expressed by the Verb. The Verbs 
above given do not, in such examples, express the full Predicate, 
nor have we Verbs that can, unless, perhaps, in the following ex- 
ample : 

" They dubbed him knight." 

Equivalent.—" They knighted Kim." 

Obs. 8. — A Verb which, in the Active Voice, is followed by 
direct and a remote Object, retains the remote Object as a part 
of the Passive Predicate. 

Examples. 



1. He is named John. 

2. North was elected President. 



( He J^ Is named John 



Rem. — This construction is analogous to that of a Substantive 
in Predicate with a Neuter Verb. 

Thou art Peter— Re is John. 

Thou art — who ? — Peter. He is named John. The word " Peter" 
completes the Predicate ; the words " named John" complete the 
Predicate. 

SUPPKESSIOST OF THE OBJECT. 

Note 4. — The Object of a Sentence or of a Phrase 
should not be omitted when the sense is thereby obscured 
or weakened. 

Examples of Errors. 
Of a Sentence. . 1. " In these cases, custom generally determines." 

2. " Though thou wilt not acknowledge— thou canst not deny 

the fact." 

3. " The Indicative Mood simply indicates— or declares—" 
Of a Phrase . . .4. "In conjugating— you must pay particular attention to 

these signs." 

5. " The author, hastening to finish— appears to write rather 

carelessly." 

6. " A verb signifying actively, governs the Accusative. 

Obs. — The same word can rarely be properly the Object of a 
Sentence and of a Phrase in the same connection. 



SYNTAX OF TEE OBJECT. 



241 



Examples of Errors. 
" The party entered, and passed quite through the cave." 
Better— The party entered the cave, and passed quite through it. 

Obs. — A Relative Pronoun, being the Object of an Auxiliary Sen- 
tence, is often elegantly suppressed. 
Examples.— 1. I gave him all— I had. 

2. Ernest placed in diagram all the sentences — I gave him. 

3. History is all the light— we have. 

4. We receive from it a great part of the useful truths— we have. 

Object Phease. 

Note 5. — Some Transitive Verbs may have, as their 
Objects, Substantive Phrases. 

Examples.— 1. " I doubted his having been a soldier." 

I I J ^ doubted ^ \ [ having been soldier) 
V I bis J I a j 

I doubted — ichat? Not "Ms" nor "Timing" nor " been" nor 
" a" nor " soldier" but the fact asserted by the whole Phrase, " Ms 
having been a soldier." 

2. " His being a minister, prevented his rising to civil power." 
Prevented— what f 

Obs. 1. — Object Phrases are generally of the Participial Form, 
Prepositional and Infinitive Phrases being commonly used as Ad- 
juncts, and Independent Phrases as Logical Adjuncts. (See p. 24, 
Obs. 1 ; see also Clark's Analysis, p. 115.) 

Obs. 2. — Infinitive Phrases following Yerbs, commonly indicate 
purpose or cause, and serve to limit the signification or application 
of Yerbs. Such are properly called Adverbs. But they sometimes 
follow Yerbs as their Objects. 

Examples. 

1. Pupils are requested to read (_ P upils V are requested "} 

vt To read" 1 is a Phrase Adjunct "-i — i ' 

of " are requested. 11 \?_j read J 

2. Pupils assemble to read f v^w *V ' — \ 

" To read 11 is a Phrase Adjunct I p 3 A assemble ) 

of " assemble." [to J read ") 

3. Pupils are anxious to read f Pupils V are anxious "} 

•'To read 11 is an Adjunct of ^ ^ ^- i — ^ 

"anxious." v J r ea(T~^ 

4. Pupils begin to read ....... r Pupil3 y hegin Y jo ) rea d > 

> k To read' is the Object of > r A ~- \ K / ■ / , 

'* begin," 

11 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Obs. 3.— The Transitive Verbs haying Objects expressed, are 
often limited by Infinitive Phrases. 

Examples.— 1. The teacher eequested William to recite. 



teacher jT requested jT William j 
I to J recite ~) 



2. I believe the milkman to be honest.* 

Rem. 1. — " To recite' 1 is a Phrase, Adjunct of " requested ;" it 
limits the request. " William" is the Object of the modified Predi- 
cate " requested to recite." 

Obs. 4 — This construction should be carefully distinguished from 
that in which the Infinitive Phrase is Adjunct of the Object. 
Examples. — 1. The general gave the order to fire. What order ? 



( general Y gave Y order J 

2. The subordinate manifested a disposition to dictate. 

3. Idle pupils manifest little anxiety to improve. 

Rem. 2. — " To fire" limits " order;" hence, an Adjective. 

" To dictate" limits " disposition ;" hence, an Adjective. 

' Let the Pupil place Sentences 2 and 3 in the given Diagram. 



Object Sentence. 

Note 6. — Many Transitive Verbs have as their Objects 
Substantive Auxiliary Sentences. 

Examples.— 1. " But Brutus says he was ambitious." 

2. " The ancient Russians believed that their northern moun- 
tains encompassed the c 




(jthaT) 



Eussians Y believed ^(inonntam ^enconipassed^" globe J 

TheJLancientJ ^Vj g^LJ X ^J 

8. " Can you tell where my Highland laddie's gone?" 
4. " He hastily demanded why I came." 

* The propriety of this construction depends much on the character of the 
predicate verb. Thus, u The teacher requested William to recite," is proper and 
not inelegant. But, 

"I believe the milkman to be honest," is inelegant and objectionable. The 
thought is better expressed thus, 

I believe that the milkman is honest. 



SYNTAX OF TEE OBJECT. 243 

5. " The village all declared how much he knew." 

6. " Did you but know to whom I gave the ring.' 1 '' 

Rem. 1. — The Pupil will notice that Sentences used as Indirect 
Objects, are introduced by a Word or a Phrase which constitutes, 
logically, the essential part of the Object. Thus in Sentence 2, " that" 
stands for the whole Proposition. 

" Their northern mountains encompassed the globe." 

" The ancient Russians believed that." 

" My Highland laddie has gone" — can you tell where ? 

" I gave the ring 1 ' — did you but know to whom. 

Rem. 2. — Still we are to regard the entire Auxiliary Sentence as 
the Grammatical Object of the Principal Predicate. 

Obs. 1. — This construction is to be carefully distinguished from 
Complex Sentences, in which the Object Sentences are introduced 
by the Double Relative what. 

Examples.— 1. " But here I come to tell what I do know." 

2. " You have done what you should be sorry for." 

Rem. 3. — Here, " what I do know" is the modified Object of 
| tell." (See Diagram, p. 49.) 

Obs. 2. — By another construction, Auxiliary Sentences may con- 
stitute the Objects of Prepositions suppressed. 
Anna has the ring — we suspect that.* 

1. We suspect that 
Anna has the 
ring. 




2. We are suspi 
cious that Anna 
has the ring. 



Anna has the ring— we are suspicious of that. 
We 




3. We have suspi- 
cions that Anna 
has the ring. 



Anna has the ring — we have suspicions of that. 




* The history of the word that traces its offices— 

1. As an Adjective— That rose is beautiful. 

2. As a Pronoun— The rose that all are praising. 

3. As a Conjunction— I believe that he is honest. 

4. You assert, that that quotation that you have given is from Carey. 
And, whatever may be its specific office in any given position, it fetill retains 
its previous offices— i. e., whenever it is used as a Conjunction, it abio retains its 
Substantive character ; and whenever it is used as a Pronoun, it retains its Ad 
jective office. (See Examples above.) 




244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Anna has the ring — it is probable — that is probable. 

C it { is probable j 

4. It is probable 
that Anna has 
the ring. 



Rem. — In each of the above Examples the Auxiliary Sentence, 
" that Anna has the ring," is Substantive in office. 

In the 1st, it is the Object of a Transitive Sentence. 

In the 2d, it is the Object of an Adverbial Phrase — the Leader 
being suppressed. 

In the 3d, it is the Object of an Adjective Phrase, of which the 
Leader is suppressed. 

In the 4th, it is a Logical Adjunct of " it." (See Diagram, p. 48.) 

Obs. 5. — Sometimes a Principal Sentence is thrown in between 
the parts of an Objective Sentence. 

Examples.— 1. "Whose charms, me thought, could never fade." 



( me Y thought J (charms X coul(i fade ) 
^ ^ \ (WliuseJ ( never j 

2. " This explanation, I doubt not, will satisfy him." 

3. " But confidence, he added, is a plant of slow growth." 

The Objects of Phkases. 

Hem. — Action is expressed by Verbs, and 
by Participles. 
Relation is expressed by Prepositions. Hence, 

Obs. 1. — The Object of a Verb or of a Participle, is the Object of 
an Action, and must be in the Objective Case. 

Examples. 
Infinitive Verb.—" I came to bury Caesar, not to praise him." 
Participle.—" He could not avoid giving offence." 

Obs. 2. — The Object of a Preposition is the Object of a Relation^ 
indicated by the Preposition, and is in the Objective Case. 
Examples.— 1. " For me your tributary stores combine.'''' 
2. " The boy stood on the burning deck, 
Whence all but him had fled." 

Obs. 3.— The Objects of Phrases and Sentences may be Words f 

Phrases, or Sentences. 



SYNTAX OF THE OBJECT 245 

Exercises o^ Objects. 

1. Objects of Sentences. 

' Let the following Sentences be analyzed by the Cbart, and 
parsed : 

Word Objects.— 1. " There thou shalt find my cousin Beatrice."— Shales. 

2. t; His daring foe securely him defied." — Milton. 

3. " The broom its yellow leaf hath, shed." — Langhorn. 

4. " Did I request thee, Maker, from my clay, 

To mold me man ?" — Milton. 
Phrase Objects.— 5. " We may avoid talking nonsense on these subjects." 
6. " I doubted their having it." ♦ 

Sentence Objects— 7. " They say, ' This shall be," and it is." 

8. "Athens found that neither art nor science could 
avail against depravity of morals. "" 

II. Objects of Phrases — Infinitive. 

Word Objects.— 9. u How I love to see thee, 
Golden, evening sun !" 
10. "I come to bury Coesar, not to praise him." 
Phrase Objects.— 11. " He endeavored to prevent our being tossed about 
by every wind of doctrine." 
12. "It is difficult to doubt his having seen military 
service." 
Sentence Objects.— 13. " This goes to prove ivhat strange creatures we are." 
14. ki The Governor commands me to say, that he has 
no further business with the Senate." 

Participial. 
Word Objects.— 15. " Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle." 
16. " Finding* /<zi^, never does any good." 
Phrase Objects.— 17. " By opposing your going to college, your father 
abridged your usefulness." 
Sentence Objects.— 18. " The ceremonies concluded by the doctor's saying, 
* Gentlemen, we will resume our studies at seven 
to-morrow.'' " 

Prepositional. 
Word Objects.— 19. " There eame to the beach a poor exile of Erin." 
20. " You are a much greater loser by his death." 
Phrase Objects.— 21. "In the matter of making and receiving presents, 
much discretion is required." 
22. " I had no knowledge of there being any connection 
between them." — Stone. 
Sentence Objects.— 23. " And all the air a solemn stillness holds— 

Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight." 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART III. 

SUP Let the above Sentences be analyzed and parsed after th 
following 

Model. 



There thou shalt find my cousin Beatrice. 

cousin 
f Beatrice J 



f thou Y shalt find j( cousin ) 

[ There ~) ( my j 



ANALYSIS. 



( The Subject " Thou." 

Principal Elements. . ■] The Predicate " Shalt find " 

( The Object " Cousin." 

( Of the Subject 

Adjuncts I Of the Predicate. ." There." 

( Of the Object [Logical] " Beatrice." 



PARSED. 

" There" is an Element in the Sentence— Adjunct Word— Ad- 
verb— of place— modifies " shalt find." 

"Thou" An Element in the Sentence— Principal Element— 

Subj ect— Word— Pronoun— Second Person— Singu- 
lar Number— Subjective Case. According to Rule 1, 
" The Subject of a Sentence is in the Subjective Case." 

"Shalt find", is an Element in the Sentence— Principal Element 
—Predicate— Verb and Verb— Indicative Mode— Fu- 
ture Tense — Second Person — Singular Number. 
Rule 2, "A Verb in Predicate must agree with its Sub- 
ject in Person and Number." 

"My" is an Element in the Sentence— Adjunct— Word- 
Adjective— Specifying— Possessive— limits " cousin." 
Rule 7, "Adjectives belong to Nouns and Pronouns 
which they describe." 

" Cousin" is an Element in the Sentence— Principal Element- 
Word— Noun— Common— Third Person— Singular 
Number— Objective Case. Rule 3, " The Object of a 
Sentence or of a Phrase is in the Objective Case." 

"Beatrice" ..is an Attendant Element— a Logical Adjunct— a 
Noun— Proper— Feminine Gender— Third Person- 
Singular Number— Independent Case. 






SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 247 

GrRAMMATlC FALLACIES. 

$W Let tlie Pupil correct the following Sentences, giving the 
proper authority for each correction : 

1. " Who did Albert marry ?" 

2. " They that assist me, I will assist. 1 ' 

3. " W'hosoever the President fancies he appoints to office." 

4. " Who do you think I met this morning ?" 

5. "He who will place this sentence in diagram we will applaud." 

6. " They that call on us we will visit." 

7. " The man who you introduced to me, has called again." 

8. " Thou only have we met in all our wanderings." 

9. " Will you let Anna and I go to the concert ?" 
10. " They from my boyhood, I have known." 

PRONOUNS. 

Eule 4. — A Pronoun must agree with its Antecedent 
in Gender, Person, and Number. 

Obs. 1. — Pronouns in the Possessive form, follow the same laws 
of agreement with their Antecedents, as those applicable to Sub- 
stantive Pronouns. 

Rem. — The Antecedent of a Pronoun is the Word, Phrase, or 
Sentence which the Pronoun represents. 

OF GENDER. 

Rem. 1. — The Gender of a Personal Pronoun of the Singular 
number is determined hy its form. (See Declension, p. 93.) 

That of all other Pronouns is determined by their Antecedents, or 
by the context. 

Note 1. — The Gender of a Pronoun should correspond 
to that of its Antecedent. 

Examples.— 1. Mary was in Savannah when she wrote last. 
2. Ernest lost his top before he had used it. 

Exception 1. — The Neuter Pronoun it may represent young 
infants, male or female. 

Example.— The child will sleep when you sing to it. 
Exception 2. — He or she may represent things without sex 
when they are personified. 

Examples.— 1. " The Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast, 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed." 
2. " When Fortune smiles she is coquetting." 



248 ENGLISH GBAMMAR-PABT III. 

Obs. 2.— Singular Nouns of different Genders connected by or 
or nor must have different words to represent the Genders of the 
Antecedents. 

Examples. -1. " Please ask Albert or Mary for Ms or her pencil." 
2. Anna or Ernest has lost his or her book.* 
^ Obs. 3.— Custom renders it proper to presume that Nouns which 
include males and females are Masculine— unless otherwise deter- 
mined by the context. 

Examples.-*. "The oldest inhabitant in the town related the story of his 
pioneer life." J 

2. "Children should revere an aged person, whether he be 
learned or unlearned." 

Obs. 4.-A Pronoun representing a Collective Noun, a Phrase or 
a Sentence, should be of the Neuter Gender. 

Errors in Gender. 

1. " The star of the west sends her last lingering ray." 

2. " Look not on the wine, when he giveth his color in the cup." 

3. " No boy or girl may leave her seat without permission." 

4. « No boy or girl here can solve that problem unless he has assistance » 

5. ' No teacher should require a pupil to do what she can not do." 

nwtl'^f^ 011 .?* lGDgth ' a PP arent ^een, unveiled its peerless light and 
o er the dark its silver mantle threw." fc ' 

Corrected.-!. The star of the west sends its last lingering ray. 
GUP Let the Pupils correct the others. 

PERSON. 

EEM.-The Person of a Personal Pronoun is determined by its 
*2L Hence ° ther Pr ° n ° UnS iS determiued b 7 their **~ 

Note 2.— The/om of a Personal Pronoun should in- 
dicate its Person and Number. 

Note 3.-The Second Person, " Solemn Style," should 
not be used in familiar conversation— nor that of the 

iaimhar Style" in addresses to the Deity-nor should 
the two forms be used in the same Sentence. 



But the Pnp.1 should be taught to prefer accuracy to elegance. ' 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 249 

Examples. 
Improper.— \. " Well, my lad, hast thou seen my new kite ?" 

2. " You have my book and I have thine." 

3. " Neither art thou such a one as to be ignorant of what you 

are." 

4. " How can you despise her who without thy pity dies ?" 

5. " Can you refuse that I share in thy woes ?" 

6. " Ere you remark another's sin, 

Bid thy own conscience look within." — Gay. 
Corrected.— -1. Well, my lad, have you seen my new kite ? 

2HP Let the Pupils correct the others. 

Obs. 5. — The Pronoun " if often has an Indefinite or undeter- 
mined Antecedent ; and may then represent any Gender, Person, 
or Number. 

Examples.— 1. "It snows." 2. "It was my father." 

3. "It was the students that broke that desk." 

4. " A pleasant thing it is, to behold the sun." 

5. " It is possible that we have eired." (See Diagram, p. 48.) 

Note 4. — When a Pronoun has two or more Antece- 
dents differing in Person, it must agree in Person with 
one of them — according to the following established 
Eules. 

(a) If both Antecedents are of the Third Person, the 
Pronoun must be of the Third Person ; as, 

" John and James always accomplish what they undertake." 
John or James always accomplishes what he undertakes. 

(b) If one is of the Third Person and one of the Sec- 
ond, the Pronoun must be of the Second Person ; as, 

" You and Ernest may amuse yourselves as you please." 

(c) If they are of the Third and the First, or of the 
Second and the First, the Pronoun must be of the First 
Person. 

1. " Anna and /always perform the tasks our mother assigns to us." 

2. " You and /can not always have what we desire." 

POSITION. 

Note 5. — Pronouns of different Persons, used in the 
same connection, should have their appropriate position. 

11* 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART lit 

Obs. 1. — The Second Person is placed first— the Third next, and 
the First last. 

Example.— You and James and /have been invited. 

Obs. 2. — But when a fault is confessed, this order is sometimes 
reversed. 

Example. — "i and my people have sinned." 

Obs. 3. — This position obtains also when we acknowledge a de- 
feat or a common calamity. 

Example.— 1 ' Then I and you and all of us fell down, 

Whilst bloody Treason nourished over us." 

flgip Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors. 

1. " Will you go to the concert with me and Clara?" 

2. " John and you may parse that sentence." 

3. " I think that /and Anna and Mary are entitled to prizes." 

4. Jack and 1 and father caught that squirrel. 

Note 6. — The Pronoun " them" should not be used 
Adjectively. 

Incorrect. — 1. Bring me them books. 

2. " Only see how them big trees bow to the breeze." 

3. " No one knows when them boys study their lessons." 

4. " Them are my sentiments." 

5. u Which of them liousen does your father live in?" 
Corrected.—!. Bring me those books. 

SalT Let the Pupils correct the others. 

NUMBEP 

Eem. — Personal Pronouns indicate unity or plurality by their 
forms — all other Pronouns by their Antecedents. 

Note 7. — A Pronoun should have a Singular form 
when it represents one Singular Antecedent. 

Example.— He nry was quite well when I last saw him. 

Exception. — The Pronoun You has the same form in both Num- 
bers. 

Examples.— 1. " James, when will you be prepared for college f " 
2. Boys, will you assist me to arrange these desks ? 

Note 8. — A Pronoun should have a Singular form 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 251 

when it represents two or more Singular Antecedents 
taken separately. 

Example.—" Honor or disgrace is sure to him only who seeks it." 

Note 9. — A Pronoun should have a Singular form 
when it represents a Collective Noun indicating Unity. 

Example.— I found the school more orderly than it had been under my ad- 
ministration. • 

Note 10. — A Pronoun should have a Plural form when 
it has one Antecedent indicating Plurality. 

Example.— Few men are as wise as they might be. 

Note 11. — A Pronoun should have a Plural form when 
it has two or more Antecedents taken collectively. 

Example. — Mary and Anna always accomplish what they undertake. 

Note 12, — A Pronoun should have a Plural form when 
its Antecedent is a Collective Noun indicating Plurality. 

Example.— The committee were unanimous in every measure which they 
discussed. 

$W° Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors.— (See Note 7.) 

1. Let any pupil put this in Diagram if they can. 

2. Each pupil may select a sentence for themselves* 

3. " Every true believer has the spirit of God in them"— Barclay* 

4. " Every member of a family should know their duty. 1 ' 

5. kfc Every one must judge of their own feelings. 11 

6. " Albert and Charles have each their peculiarities. 11 

7. " Every body has recollections which they think worthy of recording." 

8. " Every body trembled for themselves or their friends. 11 

9. " Let every student now attend to their own lesson. 11 

(Note 8.) 

10. " Every mechanic and every artist had full pay for their services." (See 
Diagram, p. 230.) 

11. " If Clara or Anna will analyze this Sentence, they shall be complimented. 11 

12. " Gold or silver will be paid if they are demanded. 11 

13. " James or Henry may sweep the school-room if they are willing. 11 

14. "I expect George or Charles will favor us with their company this even- 
ing. 11 

15. " Neither poverty nor wealth necessarily secure happiness to their pos- 
ses sor." 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III 

16. " No act nor word nor thought, whether they be good or evil, will esof.pc 
the judgment." 

{Notes 9, 10, 11, 12.) 

17. The Council was in session until ten, when they adjourned to the next 
day." 

18. " The school was called to order at nine ; but they were dismissed at 
one." 

19. " The nobility failed on every measure it proposed." 

20. " The peasantry carried every measure it brought forward." 

21. " Mankind can never exceed the limit of knowledge nature"has prescribed 
for it." 

22. " The house and barn were insured for more than it cost." 

23. " Candor and frankness manifests itself in his countenance." 

24. " The committee were unanimous on every measure which it considered." 

Note 13. — A Pronoun should not be used with its 
Noun in the same construction. 

Examples of Ekroks. 

1. " Our new teacher, she who teaches algebra, will call here to-night." 

2. " We called on Sarah, she that gives lessons on the guitar." 

3. " John, he is the boy that takes all the prizes." 

4. "My banks, they are furnished with bees." 

Corrected. — 1. " Our new teacher, who teaches algebra, will call here to-night." 

HSf* Let the Pupils correct the others. 

Obs. — But Compound Personal Pronouns, and sometimes Simple 
Pronouns, may be used with their Antecedents for emphasis or for 
Khythm. 

Examples.— 1. " The moon herself is lost in heaven." 
2. " His teeth they chatter, chatter still." 

Rem. — Words thus added have a Rhetorical, not a Grammatical 
force. (See " Words of Euphony," p. 174.) 

Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns. 

Obs. 1. — A Relative Pronoun always performs a double office, 
being used Substantively and Conjunctively. 

Example.— He who studies, will C~ He ~^ will improve ^ 

improve. ^ ' 

( who \ studies ) 

" Who" relates to " he," and is the Subject of studies ; hence, a 
Substantive. 
" Who studies," is a Sentence used to describe " he." 



- returned. 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 253 

" Who" introduces the Sentence ; hence, it performs the office of 
a Conjunction. 

Note 14. — The Antecedent of a Relative Pronoun de- 
termines its Person and Number, but not its Case. 

1. 1 who write. 2. Thou who writes^. 3. He who writes. 
4. " He whom thou lovest, is sick." 

Note 15. — In the choice of Relative Pronouns, that 
form should be selected which is in accordance with 
reputable usage. 

Obs. 2. — The Antecedent commonly decides the appropriate 
Relative Pronoun. 

Examples. 

1. The man who came 
The last man thai came 
The boat tvhich came 
The largest boat that came 

Such people as came 

Such boats as came 

More people than came 

More boats than * came 

[Him whom you sent. 
[That which you sent. 

2. I received -j All that you sent. 

I Such as you sent. 

{More than you sent. 

Eem. — The above examples suggest the following Lams for the 
choice of Relative Pronouns. 

WHO. 

Note 16. — The Relative Who is properly applied to 
intelligent beings and to things personified. 

Examples. — 1. " There are those whom I can not forgive." 

2. " Too low they build, who build beneath the stars." 

Exception. — But Collective Nouns, and names of persons, taken 
as names merely, or as titles, should be followed by the Relative 
which. 

Examples.— 1. " The multitude which followed swelled the notes of joy." 

2. " The regiment which Quinby commanded suffered most in 

this engagement." 

3. " We call Arthur ; our little Demosthenes. ,' which means supe 

rior orator." 



254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

(Hap*' Let the Pupil correct the following 

Errors.— (See Note 13.) 

1. " Anna loves to study ; but Sarah, she is ever idle." 

2. " Whoever beliereth not therein, they shall perish." 

3. " Whom, when they had washed, they laid her in an upper chamber." 

(Note 1G.) 

4. " All pupils which have recited may be dismissed." 

5. " Those pupils which study grammar should speak correctly." 

6. " The conductor introduced me to the man of which you spoke." 

7. " I did not meet the lady there zvhich you spoke of." 

(Exception to Note 16.) 

8. " The committee who were appointed failed to report." 

9. " He instructed the crowds who surrounded him." 

10. " The court, who gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary." 

11. " The nations among whom they took their rise, were not savage." 

12. '* The convention who were called accomplished nothing." 

13. " Solomon was the wisest king whom the world has ever seen." 

WHICH. 

Note 17. — The Relative Which is properly used to 
represent things. 

Examples.— 1. " The books which I left, bring with thee." 

2. " That life is long which answers life's great end." 

EJp Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors. 

1. " They are like so many puppets who are moved by wires." 

2. " And the ants, who are collected by the smell, are burned." 

3. " He was met by a dolphin, who sometimes swam before him." 

4. "He encountered the crowd, who was going up the street." 

5. " I have a temple in every heart who owns my influence." 

THAT. 

Note 18. — The Kelative That may be used to repre- 
sent persons or things. 

Obs. 1. — That is generally used when its Antecedent is 

(1.) Another Pronoun. 

(2.) A Noun limited by the Adjectives all, any, same, no^ 

or by any Adjective of the Superlative degree. 
(3.) Two or more Words denoting both person^ and things. 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 255 

Examples. — 1. " Who that has a proper self-respect, can chew tobacco ?" 

2. " It was not I that did it." 

3. " He that attends to his interior self, nas business." 

4. " Them that honor me, I will honor." 

5. " All that a man hath will he give for his life." 

6. " Not any of the boys that come to this school write compo- 

sitions." 

7. " He was the same man that taught me grammar." 

8. " The wisest man that the world has seen." 

9. " The best advice that I can give is this." 

10. "All the people and the cattle that were on the island were 
drowned." 

Obs. 2. — The Relative that is generally used to introduce an Ad- 
jective Sentence used specially to restrict or specify its Antecedent. 
Examples.— 1. " The man that dares traduce., .is not a man." 

2. " He that loveth wine and oil shall not be rich." 

3. " The evil that men do, live after them." 

Rem. — Variety, elegance, and other laws of Taste, often decide 
the proper selection of the Relative. 

Errors in the use of Relative Pronouns. 

1. " Who is she who comes clothed in robes of green ?" 

2. " He is not the person who he appeared to be." 

3. " Was it thou or the wind who shut the door ?" 

4. " All which can be done to render the definitions of grammar accurate." 
— Murray. 

5. " The Nominative expresses the name of the person or thing which acts." 
— Hilly 's Grammar, p. 19. 

6. '* The Passive Verb denotes Action received by the person or thing which 
is its Nominative."— Kirkham's Grammar, p. 157. 

7. " The same ornaments which we admire in a private apartment are un- 
seemly in a temple."— Muway's Grammar, p. 128. 

8. "Massilon was the greatest preacher which modern times have pro- 
duced." 

9. One of the first who introduced it was Montesquieu." — Murray's Gram- 
mar, p. 125. 

10. " This is the most useful art which men possess."— Murray's Key, p. 275. 

11. The humming-bird is the smallest bird which is found in this country. 

12. The commissioner has secured the men and the money which he con- 
tracted for. 

13. " The same men who stole the horse obtained the reward offered for his 
eturn." 

14. " No man whom I conversed with knew the cause of the accident." 

15. Every vine which William grafted grew vigorously. 

16. " The family with wlwm I boarded has gone to Kansas." 



256 ENGLISH GBAMMAB-PABT III 

17. " John was the^rs£ man who noticed me. 1 ' 
Corrected.—!. " Who is she that comes in robes of green?" 

flgp* Let the Pupils correct the others. 

Note 19. — Avoid the improper use of Adverbial "Words 
for Adverbial Phrases. 

Incorrect. — 1. " There is no rule given how truth may "be ascertained." 

2. " That darkness of character where we can see no heart. 1 ' — 

Murray's Key, p. 236. 

3. " This is the very house where he died." 

4. "By Prepositions we express the manner how a thing was 

done. 1 ' — Murray's Grammar, p. 128. 

5. " I have been visiting the house where I was reared. 11 

6. "I do not see the means how you will do it. 11 — Schoolmaster. 
Corrected.— 1. " There is no rule given by which truth may be ascertained." 

Q£ir Let the Pupils correct the others. 

AS. 

Note 20. — As, used as a Relative or Conjunctive Pro- 
noun, always follows the word Such. 

Example.— Such as I have, give I unto thee. 



(if give T such J 



G 



to /thee ) ( I X have X as ) 



THA]N". 

Note 21. — Than, used as a Eelative or Conjunctive 
Pronoun, follows the word More, or some other word in 
the Comparative form. 

Examples.— 1. " We have more than heart could wish." 

2. " There was more due than was ever paid." 




The Double Pronoun what. 

Obs. 3.— When the Relative "what" is used substantively, it 
usually bears a part in the structure of two sentences at the same 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 257 

time. It is equivalent to " that which,'' 1 or " the things which" The 
Antecedent part may be the Subject (a) or the Object (b) of a Prin- 
cipal Sentence, the Object (c) of a Phrase in that Sentence, or used 
in Predicate (d). The Consequent or Relative part introduces an 
Auxiliary Sentence, which qualifies the Antecedent, and may be 
the Subject (e) or the Object (g) of that Sentence, the Object of a 
Phrase (h), or used in Predicate with a Yerb (i). 

1. "What reason weaves, by passion is undone." — 
Pope. 

2. " Deduct what is but vanity."— Idem. 



it=D 



( yr ~ T ~? 


( ^ ( ^U=L_ 


D~- 




r v 


^ D 


" v^J 





"Each was favored with what he most delighted 
in." 



4. " It is not what I supposed it to be." 



Obs. 4. — Whoever, whosoever y ichatever, whatsoever, and who (used 
for whoever), have a construction similar to what. 
Examples. — 1. " Wlwtever purines fortifies also the heart." 



C~ ..atever ~J " fortifies " . 

^ ") C C al8Q ) heart 

C Wh... X purifies 






f the ) 

2. " Whoever sees, admires her." 

3. You can have whichever you prefer. 

Obs. 5. — The Compound Pronouns what, whatever, and whatsoever, 
sometimes combine an Adjective and a Substantive office at the 
same time. 

Examples.— 1. " What money he had was lost." 



( money Y was tort ) M ^ at ™ £& 

— — 1 7-y was lost.— That 

(ZX^DC^IJ^ Kalwallot 

2. W T hat sights he wished, he saw. 

3. Whatever hope he had has vanished. 

4. He performed whatever duty was assigned to him. 



r He T performed jf duty J 

I " atever [ whhT"^ was assigned ) 

to [ him~) 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART III 

Obs. 6. — By the poets, the Antecedent of a Eelative Pronoun is 
sometimes elegantly suppressed. 

Example.—" Who lives to Nature, rarely can be poor ; 
Who lives to Fancy, never can be rich." 

Obs. 7. — That is sometimes improperly used for the Relative 
what. 

Example.—" Take that is thine." 

Obs. 8. — What is sometimes substituted for an Adverbial Phrase. 
Example.—" What [in what respect] shall it profit a man?" 
Obs. 9. — What is sometimes used as an Exclamation. 
Example.—" What! Is thy servant a dog ?" 

Note 22. — The two words, tut what — and also but 
that — should not be used for the Conjunction that. 

Examples. — 1. " I did not doubt but what you would come." 
2. " I did not doubt but that you would come." 
Corrected.— I did not doubt that you would come. 

Position or Pronouns. 

Note 23. — In the structure of Sentences, Pronouns 
should be so placed as most clearly to indicate their An- 
tecedents. 

Obs. 1. — Generally we place a Pronoun after its Antecedent. 
Examples.— 1. The boy injured himself. 

2. " The rose that all are praising." 

Exception 1. — Interrogative Pronouns precede the Nouns or 
Pronouns which they represent. 

Examples.— 1. " Who will show us any good ?" 

2. " What can compensate for loss of character ?" 

Exception 2. — The Pronoun it, having an explanatory Phrase 
or Sentence used as a Logical Adjunct, should precede that Phrase 
or Sentence. 

Example.—" How is it possible not to love her?" 

Exception 3. — The Antecedent, used as an explanatory word, 
often follows the Pronoun. 

Example.—" Ye crags and peaks/ I'm with you once again." 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS, 259 

Position of the Eelatiye. • 

Obs. 1. — When a Relative is the Subject or the Object of an 
Auxiliary Sentence, it should be placed next its Antecedent. 
Examples.— 1. " Can all that optics teach unfold 
Thy form to please me so ?" 
2. " The grave, that never spoke before, 

Hath found, at length, a tongue to chide." 

Exception. — Sometimes, for rhetorical effect, words of special 
importance may be placed between the Relative and its Antecedent. 
Example.—" O, they love least that let men know their love." 

Obs. 2. — When the Relative is the Object of a Prepositional 
Phrase, it comes between its Antecedent and the Auxiliary Sen- 
tence with which that Phrase is construed. 

Example.—" We prize that most/or which we labor most." 

Rem. — " For which" modifies " labor" — " which" relates to 
" that." 

Obs. 3. — The Relative that, used as the Object of a Preposition, 
is placed before the Preposition. Whom, which, and what, are placed 
after their Prepositions. 

Examples. — 1. " I have meat to eat that ye know not of" 

2. " Withhold not good from them to whom it is due." 

3. u The world in which we sojourn is not our home." 

4. " We could not learn for ivhat he came." 

Obs. 4. — The Relative — when the Subject of a Sentence, or the 
Object of a Phrase — can rarely be omitted without weakening the 
force of the expression. 

Examples.— 1. " For is there aught in sleep [ ] can charm the wise ?" 
2. " The time may come [ ] you need not fly. 1 ' 

Obs. 5. — But the suppression of the Relative is allowed when it 
is the Object of a Sentence, or when the position of the words is 
such as to prevent ambiguity or weaken the expression. 

Examples. — 1. " History is all the light we have in many cases ; and we re- 
ceive from it a great part of the useful truths we have." 
2. " But they that fight for freedom, undertake 

The noblest cause mankind can have at stake." 

J^lp Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors. 

1. ll The first love is the last to leave the memory which enters the heart." 

2. " The Military Academy seems to be one of the most popular schools in 
*.he city which De Graff instituted." 






260 ENGLISH GBAMMAR—PABT III 

3. " The boy should bring a certificate from his former teacher, who applies 
for admission to this school." 

4. " Every man contributed to the relief of the sufferers whom I met." 

5. " The day I entered college was remarkable as the day— the great meteoric 
shower first fell." 

6. "Alexander continued four days in the place — he was." 

7. " Darius was but twenty miles from the place — they then were." 

8. "They are right when they serve for uses— they were made."— Collier, 
p. 99. 

9. "To give directions as to the manner — it should be studied." — HallecTc'8 
Grammar, p. 9. 

10. " The book which I read that story in, is at school." 

11. " I could not deny but what he was the man." 

12. " No one can doubt but what grammar is a pleasing study." 

13. " I have no doubt but that you will receive the highest honors." 

14. " There is no question but that the moon revolves on its axis." 

Ikterrogatives. 

Note 24. — Interrogative Pronouns are construed like 
Personal Pronouns. 

Examples.— 1. As the Subject of a Sentence— Who has the lesson ? 

2. As the Object of a Sentence— Whom seek ye? 

3. As the Object of a Phrase— For what do we labor? 

Obs. 1. — The Interrogative force of such Pronouns is commonly 
suppressed when they introduce Substantive Auxiliary Sentences. 
Examples.— 1. Who has the lesson ? 







[ Who ^ k aB 


J( lesson ~) 




L_Jhe_J 








: ^ ) 


shall see 
( soon_j 


1 f who J( has 


Y lesson ") 

A J 






L_the_J 



2. We shall soon see who has the lesson. 

3. Whom seek ye ? 

4. Ye still refuse to tell whom ye seek. 

5. We scarcely know/or ivhat we labor. 

Obs. 2. — But the Principal Sentence may remain interrogative. 
Examples.— 1. Which shall have the premium ? 

2. " Who shall decide which shall have the premium ?" 

3. How can you tell whom the teacher will reward? 

4. By whom did you learn /or ivhom I voted f 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 261 

Obs. 3. — The word which answers a question has a construction 
similar to that of the word which asks it. 
Examples.— 1. Whose book have you ? Mary's. 

2. What could I do ? Nothing. 

3. Where did you see him ? In Rochester, 

4. Whence came they ? From Ireland. 

Rem. — " Mary's" specifies " book" — " in Rochester" modifies 
" did see" — " from Ireland" modifies " came," 

Obs. 4. — The Interrogative what, followed by the Conjunctions 
though, if, and some others, commonly belongs to a Principal Sen- 
tence understood, on w T hich the following Sentence depends for 
sense. 

Examples.— 1. " What if the foot aspired to be the head ?" 

What [would be the consequence] if the foot, etc. 

2. " What though Destruction sweep these lovely plains ?" 

What [occasion have we to despair] though Destruction 
sweep these lovely plains ? 

Adjective Peo^ouks. 

Eule 5. — Adjective Pronouns are substituted for the 
Nouns tvhich they qualify. 

Note 1. — When used as Subjects, each, either, neither, 
this, that, and all other Adjective Pronouns indicating 
'unity, require their Verbs to be in the Singular Number. 

Examples. 
Correct. — 1. Each believes his own. 2. Either is sufficient. 

3. " Neither of them has any reputation. 11 
Incorrect. — 4. " Are either of the boys absent to-day ?" 

5. " Do you prefer grammar to logic ? Neither of them have any 

charms for me. 11 

6. " Each of those three boys merit the highest honors of the 

class. 11 

Note 2. — These, those, many, others, several, and other 
Adjective Pronouns indicating pliLrality, require their 
! Verbs to be in the Plural. 

Examples.— 1. " These are the things which defile." 
2. " Those were halcyon days. 11 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Note 3. — Any, all, like, some, none, more, and such, may 
have Verbs in the Singular or Plural, according as they 
indicate unity or plurality. 

Examples.— 1. " None but the upright in heart are capable of being true 
friends."— Y. L. Friend. 

2. ' ' Non ehas arri ve d . 1 ' 

3. " All are but parts of one stupendous whole." 

4. " What if the field be lost ? All is not lost," 

5. " The like were never seen before." 

6. " Like produces like." 

7. " Objects of importance must be portrayed by objects of im- 

portance ; such as have grace, by things graceful." 

8. " Nestled at its root 

Is Beauty ; such as blooms not in the glare 
Of the broad sun." 

Obs. 1. — Qualifying and some Specifying Adjectives receive the 
definitive " the" before them, on becoming Adjective Pronouns. 
They may be qualified by Adjectives or by Adverbs, according as the 
thing or the quality is to be limited. 

Examples.— 1. " The good alone are great." 

2. " The professedly good are not always really so." 

3. " The much good done by him will not soon be forgotten." 

" Professedly" modifies the quality ; hence, it is an Adverb. 
" Much" limits the things done ; hence, it is an Adjective. 

Obs. 2. — In the analysis of a Sentence, each, other, one another, 
and similar distributives, are properly parsed as single words. 
But, in strict construction the parts perform different offices. 
Examples.— They assisted each other. 

They assisted— each [assisted] the other. 

Obs. 3. — When two things are mentioned in contrast, and sev- 
erally referred to by Adjective Pronouns— this and these refer to the 
latter — <^a£and those to the former. 

Examples.— 1. " Here living tea-pots stand, one arm held out, 

One bent ; the handle this, and that the spout." — Pope. 

2. ''Farewell, my friends ; farewell, my foes ; 

My peace with these, my love with those.'''— Burns. 

3. " Some place the bliss in action ; some, in ease : 

Those call it pleasure ; and contentment these." 



SYNTAX. 263 

Independent Case. 

Eule 6. — A Noun or a Pronoun, not dependent on 
any other word in construction, is in the Independent 

Case. 

Obs. 1. — We have seen (p. 189) that the framework of a Sentence 
— its Principal Elements — are the Subject, the Predicate, and the 
Object ; that the Subject and the Object- are the Substantive Ele- 
ments — both depending for their Syntax on the Predicate (p. 208) 
— the former as Subjective Case, the latter as Objective. Nouns 
and Pronouns in all other conditions, not being thus dependent on 
the Verb for their Syntax, are said to be Independent (p. 88) ; and 
that this generic term includes the following specific conditions : 

1. The names of persons or of things addressed, 

Appellatives. 

2. Nouns and Pronouns used to introduce Independent Phrases, 

Absolute. 

3. Nouns and Pronouns used as complementary of Verbs and of 
Participles, 

in Predicate. 

4. Nouns and Pronouns used explanatory of other Nouns and 

Pronouns, 

in Apposition. 

5. Nouns and Pronouns used simply as Names — Cards, Signs, 

Titles, 

Naming. 

To this last class may be added all Nouns and Pronouns used 
for Euphony. 

Hence, 

Note 1. — The name of a person or thing addressed is 
in the Independent Case. 

Examines.— 1. "Friends, Romans, Countrymen." 

2. " Come, gentle spring— ethereal mildness, come." 

Rem. — In the last example the word thou, understood, is the 
proper subject of u come." The words "spring" and " mildness" 
are addressed, and are independent in construction. (See p. 85.) 

Note 2. — A Noun or a Pronoun, used as the Leader 
of an Independent Phrase, is in the Independent Case. 



264: ENGLISH GBAMMAB—PART III. 

Examples.— 1. The houk having arrived, we commenced the exercises. 
2. " Thus talking, hand in hand, alone they passed 
On to their blissful bower." Hand being in hand. 
(See Diagram, p. 209.) 

Note 3. — A Noun or a Pronoun, used in Predicate 
with a Verb, is in the Independent Case. 

Examples.— 1. " Thou art a scholar" 2. It is /. 3. " God is love." 

4. " He maketh the storm a calm." 

5. " It was the students* that broke the glass." 

Obs.— A Noun or a Pronoun used in Predicate, may have the 
form of the Subjective or of the Objective Case. 
Examples.— 1. " I thought it to be him" 

2. "It was not mef that you saw." 

3. " It was not I that did it." 

Rem. — This idiom is established by good authority — ancient and 
modern — and grammarians can not well alter the custom. 

k; Nescire quid accident antequam natus es, est semper esse -pxierum." 

" Not to know what happened before you was born, is always to be a boy." 

Here, " puerum" (boy) has the form of the Accusative Case (Ob- 
jective), and can not be in the Nominative. 

Note 4. — A JSToun or a Pronoun used to explain a pre- 
ceding Noun or Pronoun, is in the Independent Case. 

* The notion that " two or more Nouns meaning the same person or thing 
agree in Case 1 ' is fallacious. Case is only a condition of Substantives depend- 
ent on their relation or non-relation to other words— an accidental quality ; but 
Gender and Number are attributes inherent in the things themselves — without 
reference to other words. Hence if identity demands any thing, it must be in- 
herent qualities — Gender, Number, and Person. But in the example given, not 
even these qualities inhere. 

14 It was the students that broke the glass." 
Must ' 4 students" " agree in case 1 ' with " it 11 because they indicate the " same 
persons ?" Then why not also agree in Gender and Number ? But is " stu- 
dents 1 ' of the Neuter Gender and Singular Number because " it 1 ' is ? If then 
these words do not agree in their inherent qualities — Gender and Number— why 
claim that they do in the accidental relation of case ? 

Another example, " The teacher ivhom I love, has gone." Here "teacher" 
and " whom" indicate the same person. Must they, therefore, " agree in case ?" 

Is it well to hold and teach an error, only because it is venerable f— and reject 
a truth, only because we did not learn it before we learned the error ? 

t Well-established custom requires the same Rule in English that is given 
in our Greek Grammars. " The Antecedent is sometimes put, by attraction, in 
the case of the relative." 



INDEPENDENT GASES. 265 

Examples.-I. Paul, the Apostle, wrote to Timothy. (See Diagram, p. m.) 
2. "Up springs the lark, shrill-voiced and shrewd, 
The messenger of morn." 
q bs . i._ This Note applies also to Phrases and to Sentences. 

Examples.— 1. It is our duty to study. 

2. "It is possible that we mistake." (See Diagram, p. 244.) 

Obs. 2.— An Independent Noun or Pronoun is properly a Logi- 
cal Adjunct when it is used to describe or limit another word. 

Examples.— Paw? the Apostle— Peter the Great. 

Eem.— " Apostle" describes " Paul," by limiting the application 
of that name to a particular individual. 

Note 5.— A Noun or a Pronoun denoting the Subject 
of remark— the title of a book— used in address, in ex- 
clamation, or for Euphony, is in the Independent Case. 

Examples.-I. "Our Fathers! where are they? and the Prophets! do they 
live forever ?" 

2. " Wright's Orthography:" 

3. The Military Academy. 

4. " The moon herself Is lost in heaven." 

Obs. 3.— In this Note are properly included Nouns and Pronouns 
repeated for the sake of emphasis. 

Example.—" This, this is thinking free." 

Obs. 4.— Adverbial Sentences are often elegantly condensed into 
Independent Phrases. 

xLXAMPLES. 

Sentence.- When the hour had arrived, we commenced the exercises. 

Phrase.— The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises. 

(See Diagrams, p. 209.) 

Eem 1 — " When the hour had arrived" is a Grammatical Ad- 
junct of " commenced," an Adverbial Sentence. " Hour" is the 
Subject of that Sentence ; hence, in the Nominative Case. 

Rem 2 — " The hour having arrived" is a Logical Adjunct of 
" commenced," an Independent Phrase. " Hour" is the Leader of 
that Phrase ; hence, in the Independent Case. 

0bs 5 _By a custom not to be recommended nor allowed, ex- 
cept by " poetic license," an Independent Phrase is sometimes pre- 
ceded by a Preposition, which does not indicate a relation, nor 
properly connect it to an Antecedent. 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Examples.— 1. " With arm in arm, the forest rose on high, 
And lessons gave of brotherly regard.'" 
2. " Upon our horse becoming weary, we procured lodgings at a 
private house." 

Rem. 1. — " With" is not necessary to the grammatical construc- 
tion of the Sentence — its affix being simply to preserve the rhythm. 

Rem. 2. — The use of " upon" is unnecessary and improper. 

Exercises in the Use of the Independent Case. 

1. O Absalom/ my son, my son ! 

2. Lend me your songs, ye nightingales / 

3. How is it possible not to feel grateful for such benefits! 

4. Other things being equal, we prefer a fruit-growing climate. 

5. Thou art the ruins of the noblest man 
That ever lived in the tide of time. 

6. Henceforth I never will be Borneo. 

7. John dislikes to be called an idle boy. 

8. That little indiscretion made him my enemy. 

9. His teeth they chatter still. 

$W* Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors. 

1. " Me being satisfied, you ought to be so too." 

2. My being fatigued, John finished my task for mo. 

3. I thought it to be he. 

4. It was not me that did it. 

ADJUNCTS. 

Rem. — The term Adjunct, as used in grammar, embraces all 
those Elements in Sentences and in Phrases that are used to limit, 
qualify, or modify other Elements. 

Note 1. — Adjuncts belong to the words which they 
modify or describe. 

The Forms of Adjuncts. 

( Words, 

Obs. 1.— Adjuncts may consist of \ Phrases, or 

( Sentences. 

Examples.— 1. A Word.— We were walking homeward. 

2. A Phrase. — We were walking toward home. 

3. A Sentence.—" Let me stand here till thou remember it." 



SYNTAX OF ADJUNCTS. 267 

Note 2. — In the use of Adjuncts, that form should be 
employed which will most fully convey the sense in- 
tended. 

Obs. 1.— Many Adjunct Words, Phrases, and Sentences arc inter- 
changeable. 

Examples. 

Word Adjuncts.—!. "An honest man is the noblest work of God." 
2. " Dark days are remembered. 11 
Phrase Adjuncts.— 3. A man of honesty is the noblest work of God. 
4. Let him remember the days of darkness. 
Sentence Adjuncts.— 5. A man who is honest, is the noblest work of God. 
6. Days which are dark, are long remembered. 

Obs. 2. — But this interchange of Adjuncts is not always admis- 
sible. 

Examples. 

Correct.—" The time of my departure is at hand. 11 

Incorrect.— My departure's time is at hand. (See Obs. 3, p. 278.) 

Obs. 3. — Adjuncts are often Complex. One Adjunct Word may 
be qualified or limited by another Word. 

Examples.— 1. Two hundred dollars were contributed. 



( dollars ~~Y"~" were contributed j 

I hundred ) 

L Two J 
2. The cloud's deep voice. 3. The wind's low sigh. 

Obs. 4. — An Adjunct Word may be limited by a Phrase. 
Examples.— 1. " From the shore, eat into caverns, by the restless wave" 
2. " Wisdom is too high for a fool." 



C Wisdom X lB high ) 

I to ° ~) 

l* or J fool ) 
C_a_J 

Obs. 5. — An Adjunct Word may be limited by a Sentence. 
Examples.— 1. " He called so loud that all the hollow deep resounded." 
2. " Oft as the morning dawns should gratitude ascend." 
(See Diagram, p. 46.) 

Obs. 6. — An Adjunct Phrase may be limited by a Word. 
Example.- -Arthur went almost to Boston. (See Diagram, p. 254.) 

Obs. 7. — An Adjunct Sentence may be limited by a Word. 
Example.—" Not as the conqueror comes, 

They the true-hearted came. 11 (See p. 254.) 



268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

The Offices of Adjuncts. 

. Pkist.— All Adjuncts are 5 Adjectives or 

( Adverbs. 

Note 3.— (a) All Adjuncts of Substantives are Ad- 
jectives. 
(i) All Adjuncts of Verbs are Adverbs. 

(c) All Adjuncts of Adjectives are Ad- 
f verbs. 

(d) All Adjuncts of Adverbs are Adverbs. 

Obs. 8.— Adjuncts may be attached to any of the five Elements 
of Sentences. 

1. To the Subject » The king of shadows loves a shining mark." 

(See Diagram, p. 54.) 

2. To the Predicate. . " And when its yellow luster smiled 

O'er mountains yet untrvd, 
Each mother held aloft her child 
To bless the bow of God." 
(See Diagram, p. 64.) 

3. To the Object " They undertake the noblest cause mankind can have at 

stake."" (See Diagram, p. 59.) 

4. To the Adjective.. "The truly virtuous man is not regardless of his 

reputation." 

5. To the Adverb . . . . " Wisdom is too high for a fool." 

" Oft as the morning dawns should gratitude ascend." 
(See Diagram, p. 42.) 

Logical Adjuncts. 
Rem.— In addition to Grammatical Adjuncts, we have what may 
properly be called Logical Adjuncts. These are commonly Sub- 
stantives, independent in construction, yet serving indirectly to 
limit or modify other Elements. (See p. 29.) 

C Words, 

Logical Adjuncts may consist of I Phrases, or 

(Sentences.. 

Examples. 

(1.) Word Adjuncts.— Peter the Hermit resembled, in temperament Peteb 
the Apostle. 

{^ Peter ^j(^ resembled __j C Peter *} 

(^ Hermit ^) [ in j temperament) ( Apostle j 

C th O l ml 






SYNTAX OF ADJUNCTS. 



269 



Rem.—" Hermit" and " Apostle" are Nouns, yet serve to distin- 
guish the two men named " Peter." Hence they are Logical Ad- 
juncts—Nouns—Proper—Independent in construction. (See p. 34.) 



It 



(2.) Phrase Adjuncts. (^ 

1. It is pleasant to gather « , i_ ^ — . 

flowers. jtoj gather X nowerB ) 

2. It is pleasant for children. I ^ l J \ 



~~Y is pleasant J 



is pleasant 



3. It is pleasant for children 
to gather flowers. 



4. Is it good to be alone ? 

5. It is not good for man. 



C 



It 



[ ^°X~ gather y flowers } 



for j children ) 

~Y i^ pleasant ) 

l for J children ) 



C 



Is 



~V it good 



D 



[ to/ be alone ) 

V is good 




6. It is not good for man to 
be alone. 



( 


T 


is good 


) 






LiotJ 1 for 




1 u 


[ man J 


[toj^be alone 


) 







Rem. 1.— The Pronoun u it" being omitted, the Phrases become 
the Subjects. Thus, 



7. "To gather 
•flowers" is pleasant 
lbi children. 

8. " Tobe alone" 
is not good for 
man.* 




) Y~ is good J 

( not) ( ^for j— J Hin^ 



9. The teacher being sick, 
the school was dismissed. 



school 



t the 



X 



was dismissed 



J 



( Teach er ) 
(The)[ bVing~sick ) 






* " To gather flowers" and " to be alone" are Infinitive Phrases, and in Sen- 
tence (1) " to gather flowers" is a Logical Adjunct of " it," used to tell what the 
word "it" means. But in Sentence (7) " to gather flowers" is the Subject of 
"is pleasant." In Sentences (2), (3), and (7), "for children" is a Phrase, Pre- 
positional, Adverbial, used as a Grammatical Adjunct of " is pleasant." 



270 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART III. 



10. Because the teacher ^-t— - SCh ° Ql X was . dis missed 

was sick, the school was * — — — * r~zz — l - n 

dismissed.* (^Jgecause j 

( Teacher ^(was sick ) 

OSel ^ ' 

(3.) It is possible that we mistake. 



( Jt Y is possible J 

C that } 
(j_ X mistake ^ 

Rem.— " r/i^ we mistake" limits the signification of the word 
ii It " 

The Sentence may be substituted for the Pronoun. Thus, 



That we mistaJce is possible. 



Q we ^mistake" 



^ 



is possible 

I 



J 



For further Observations on Logical Adjuncts, see " Indepen- 
dent Case," Part II., p. 85. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Eule 7.— Adjectives belong to Nouns and Pronouns 
which they describe. 

Obs. 1.— It should be remembered that any word whose most 
important office is to specify, qualify, or otherwise describe a per- 
son or a thing, is, therefore, an Adjective. (See Def. 97.) A word 
which is sometimes or generally used as some other " part of 
speech," may, in certain connections, be used Adjectively; and 
when thus used, it is an Adjective, whatever its form may be. 

Examples.— An iron fence. Working oxen. 

Rem.— Every Adjective having its Substantive understood, be- 
comes Pronominal. (See Adjective Pronouns, p. 97.) 

* Logically considered, the Phrase " the teacher being sick;" and the Sentence 
" Because the teacher was sick," are alike Modifying Adjuncts of the Predicate 
" was dismissed 11 — the Phrase assuming and the Sentence declaring the cause 
of the school's being dismissed. But the Phrase— having no word making a 
grammatical connection with the Predicate-is called a Logical Adjunct- 
whereas the Sentence— being grammatically connected with its Principal by the 
Conjunction "because 11 — is said to be a Grammatical Adjunct. 




SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 271 

Obs. 2. — An Adjective may consist of 
A Word.— The recitation hour has arrived. 

A Phrase.— The hour for recitation has arrived. Vtt 

A Sentence.— The hour in which we recite has arrived. 

Adjective Words. 

Obs. — Adjectives describe things in two distinct methods : 

1. As an ordinary epithet, in which the attribute is not asserted, 
but implied or assumed. 

Examples.— 1. A sweet apple. 2. A few inhabitants. 

2. By asserting the attribute with the aid of a Verb or a Par- 
ticiple. 

3. The apple is sweet. 4. The inhabitants are few. 

The Fobms op Adjectives. 

Rem. 1. — Many words in the English Language are primitive 
words, having forms peculiar to their Adjective office. 
Examples.— Hard— soft— sour— sweet— good— bad— old— young. 

Rem. 2.— But most words used as Adjectives are Derivative 
Words — being formed from Nouns by the addition of suffixes. 
Examples. — Arabian — virtuous— hop eful — master^?/ — children's. 

Rem. 3. — Many Adjectives have the same form as the Noun. 
Examples.— A silver pencil— a gold pen— a stone bridge. 

Note 1. — That form of the Adjective should be used 
which is in accordance with reputable usage. 

Obs. 1. — An Adjective word denoting the material of its Substan- 
tive, should have the Substantive form ; as, a Gold Pen, a Silver 
Pencil. 

But an Adjective word denoting resemblance of the material 
should have its appropriate Adjective termination; as, " Golden 
harvest," " Silvery tide." 

Obs. 2. — When two or more Adjectives belong to the same 
Noun, they may — 

1. Severally qualify the Substantive only ; or, 



272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART III. 

2. One Adjective may belong to the Noun as modified by the 
other. 

Examples.— 1. " He was a tall, athletic, vigorous man. 11 

2. n Lamartine acted a conspicuous part in the late French 
devolution." 

Rem.— " Tall," " athletic," and " vigorous," are Adjectives — each 
standing in the same relation to the Word " man." 

" French" describes or limits " Revolution ;" " late" limits 
" French Revolution." 

Obs. 3. — This construction should be distinguished from that in 
which the Adjective — and not the Adjective and the Noun com- 
bined — is modified by an Adverb. 

Examples.— A very beautiful flower. A long-neglected duty. 

Obs. 4. — Specifying Adjectives — Possessive or Numeral — maybe 
limited by other Adjectives. 

Examples.— 1. " He heard the king's command, 

2. And saw that writing's truth. 1 ' 

3. We gave two hundred dollars. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

Rem. — As things are equal or unequal, similar or dissimilar, we 
have words indicating those differences. 

Note 2. — Care should be exercised in the choice of 
appropriate words to indicate Comparison. 

1. Comparison of Equality. 

Obs. 1. — Two or more things, similar in any given quality, are 
compared by the use of the word As, placed before the latter term. 
Examples.— 1. John is as tall as James. 

2. Warner is not so fair as Arthur. 

Obs. 2. — The former term of the Comparison of Equality may 
be preceded by As or So, and sometimes by Such. (See Examples 
above.) 

As is used in Affirmative Sentences. 

So is used in Negative Sentences. (See Examples above.) 

2. Comparison of Inequality. 

Note 3. — In Comparisons of Inequality, when but two 
things are compared, the former term requires an Adjec- 
tive or an Adverb of the Comparative Degree. 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 273 

Examples.— 1. " They are stronger than lions."— Taylor. 

2. " Their instinct is more perfect than that of man. 1 ' 

Exception. — Some good writers employ the Superlative. 
Example. — " The largest boat of the two was cut loose. 1 '— Cowper, 

Obs. 1. — The second term of Comparison of Inequality is com- 
monly introduced by the word Than. (See Examples above.) 

Obs. 2. — When the second term is a Substantive Word, Than is 
a Preposition. 

Example.—" Than whom, Satan except, none higher sat."— Milton. 

Obs. 3. — When the second term is a Sentence, Than is com- 
monly a Relative Pronoun or a Conjunction. 
Examples.— 1. " He has more than heart could wish." 

2. " And there are lovelier flowers, I ween, 
Than e'er in Eastern lands were seen." 

(For other Observations on Than, see " Conjunctions.") 

Obs. 4. — The second term of a comparison may be suppressed 
when the sense is not thereby obscured. 
Examples.— 1. " We both have fed as well." 

2. " I have known deeper wrongs." 

But, 
Obs. 5. — When the second term is given it must correspond in 
construction with the first. 

Incorrect.—" The study of Greek is more interesting than German." 
Corrected. — The study of Greek is more interesting than the study of Ger- 
man—than that of German. 

Note 4. — Adjectives of the Superlative Degree are 
used when more than two things are compared. 

Examples. — 1. " The richest treasure mortal times afford is spotless reputa- 
tion." 
2. " Thou art the ruins of the noblest man that ever lived." 

Note 5. — Comparative and Superlative Adjectives re- 
quire different constructions. 

Obs. 1. — The Comparative Degree requires the former term to 
be excluded from the latter. 

Example.— Iron is more valuable than all other metals. 

Rem. — In this Example " Iron" is put as one term of Compari- 

12* 



274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART ILL 

son, and " all other metals" as the other term—two things are com- 
pared. Hence, the Comparative form. 

Obs. 2.— The Superlative Degree requires the former term to be 
included in the latter. 

Example.— Iron is the most valuable of all the metals 

Rem.— Here, "all the metals" are taken severally. "Iron" is 
taken from the list, and put in comparison with the many others- 
more than two things are compared. Hence, the use of the Su- 
perlative form. 

Note 6.— Some Adjectives can not be compared. 

Example.— John's hoop is much more circular than mine. 
Corrected.— John's hoop is much more nearly circular than mine. 

Note 7.— Double Comparatives and Superlatives are 
improper. 

Example.— In the calmest and most stillest night. 

Obs.— But Lesser is often used by good writers. 
Example.—' 1 The lesser co-efficient. "—Davies" Algebra. 

Eem.— The Comparison of Adjectives is not commonly absolute, 
but relative. Thus, in saying, This is the sweetest apple, I merely 
say that this apple possesses a higher degree of the quality than all 
other apples with which it is compared. 

$W Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors. 

1. John is not as tall as James. 

2. William is so tall as his father. 

3. The magnolia is more beautiful as the althea. 

4. William's ball is rounder than mine. 

5. Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. 

6. Eve was the fairest of all other women. 

7. Eve was fairer than all her other daughters. 

8. Nellie is the most loveliest of the girls. 

9. " Of all other pupils in this school, Arthur is the best speaker." 

10. There is no science so practical and so useful as Chemistry. 

11. The occupation of the teacher is more important than the lawyer. 

12. The cultivation of the heart is no less obligatory than the intellect. 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 275 

Specifying Adjectives. 

Note 8. — Specifying Adjectives should be so used as 
clearly to signify the real intention of the speaker or 
writer. 

Rem. 1. — The peculiar province of Specifying Adjectives is to 
indicate the individuality of beings or things. Hence, 

Obs. 1. — Specifying Adjectives should be used before Nouns 
taken in a restricted sense. 

Examples.— 1. " The man of wealth and pride 

Takes up a space that many poor supplied." 

2. " He has betrayed the confidence of his friends." 

3. " The truth of that proposition is self-evident." 

Rem. 2. — But Nouns may be restricted by the use of Phrases. 

Examples.— 1. " Love of virtue is exhibited in deeds of charity." 

2. " Application to studies secures excellence in scholarship." 

Obs. 2. — Specifying Adjectives should not be used before Nouns 
taken in a general sense. 

Examples.— 1. " Man needs but little here below." 

2. " Confidence is a plant of slow growth." 

Obs. 3. — Specifying Adjectives should not be used before Proper 
Nouns. 

Examples. — Jackson was the more skillful general ; 
Webster, the greater statesman. 

Rem. 3. — Proper Nouns are rendered Common by the use of 
Specifying Adjectives. 

Example.— Lincoln is the Washington of the nineteenth century. 

Note 9. — A Specifying Adjective should be repeated 
when its omission would occasion ambiguity or obscurity. 

Obs. 1. — We properly repeat the Specifying Adjective before 
two or more Nouns specifically distinct. 

Examples.— 1. Man knows neither the day nor the hour of his departure. 
2. The North and the South lines are parallel. 

Obs. 2. — We repeat the Specifying Adjective when two or more 
Nouns are joined in the same construction and taken severally — 
especially if a part of the Nouns are suppressed. 



276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Examples.— 1. We have sold the black, the bay, and the white horse. 

2. " The vain, the wealthy, and the proud, 

In folly's maze advance." 

3. The first, the third, and the fifth child were sons. 

Note 10. — Specifying Adjectives should not be re- 
peated before different Qualifying Adjectives used to de- 
scribe the same thing, or before different Nouns indi- 
cating the same person or thing. 

Examples.— 1. " The North and South line is accurately drawn." 
2. Headley was a better orator than historian. 

$W Let the Pupils correct the following 

Erkors. 

1. Oldest pupil in this class is not wisest. 

2. The proper study of the mankind is the man. 

3. The North and South lines run east and west. 

4. The past and present tense of that verb do not differ in form. 

5. The North and the South lines marked on the map are called meridians. 

Numeral Adjectives. 

Note 11. — In the use of Adjectives that imply Num- 
ber, such should be employed as agree in Number with 
their Nouns. 

Examples. — A book— one book — three books. 

This book— that book— some books. 

Obs. — But a Noun having two or more Adjectives differing in 
Number, may agree in Number with the one placed next it. 
Example. — " Full many a gem of purest ray serene." 

Note 12. — When the Adjective is necessarily Singular 
or Plural, its Noun should agree with it in Number. 

Examples.— 1. " The field is two miles long and one mile broad." 

2. " Them hands let useful skill forsake— 

This voice in silence die." 

Obs. — Exception. — A few Nouns are used technically or figura- 
tively in the Singular Number, with Plural Adjectives. 

Examples.— 1. A hundred head of cattle. 2. Fifty sail of the line. 

3. Surveyors use a four rod chain. 

4. Carpenters use a ten foot pole. 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 277 

Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors. 

1. Mary has not been at home this six months. 

2. The Ridge road is three rod wider than the Braddock's Bay road. 

3. The surveyor's chain is four rod long. 

4. Hence it is called a four rods chain. 

0. William exchanged three pair of rabbits for ten dozen of eggs. 

Possessive Specifying Adjectives. 

Kule 8. — A Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive Case 
is used Adjectively. 

Examples. — 1. Webster's Dictionary. 2. Our neighbor. 

3. The peddler deals in boys' 1 caps and children's shoes. 

Exception. — Nouns and Pronouns in the Possessive form are 
sometimes used Substantively, and are then in the Subjective, in the 
Objective, or in the Independent Case. 

Examples. 

Subjective 1. u And they both beat alike— only, mine was the quickest." 

Objective 2. " He is a friend of mine, and lives next door to Smith's." 

Independent . .3. " Thine is the kingdom." 

Obs. 1. — The sign of the Possessive Case is not always annexed 
to the name of the Possessor. 

1. It may be transferred to an attribute following the name of 
the Possessor. 

Examples.— 1. The Pope of Kome's legate. 

2. " Whether it be owing to the Author of nature's acting upon 
us every moment." — Bp. Butler. 

2. When two or more Possessives, immediately following each 
other, are alike applicable to the same word, it is attached only to 
the last. 

Examples.— 1. George, James, and William's father. 
2. A. S. Barnes and Co.'s publications. 

Obs. 2.— But the sign of the Possessive should be repeated when 
one Possessive is used to specify another. 
Example. — Gould's Adams' Latin Grammar. 

Obs. 3. — The sign of the Possessive should be repeated when the 
Possessives refer to different persons. 

Examples.—" Heroes' and Heroines' shouts confusedly rise." 



278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR—PART III 

Note 1. — Possessive Adjectives describe Nouns and 
Pronouns, by indicating possession, fitness, origin, con- 
dition, etc., etc. 

Examples. 

1. Boys' caps " Boys 1 " denotes the size of the caps. 

2. Webster's Dictionary " Webster's" denotes the origin. 

3. " Heaven's immortal Spring shall yet arrive, 

And man's majestic beauty bloom again, 

Bright through the eternal year of Love's majestic reign." 

Obs. 4. — A Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive Case is often 
equivalent to an Adjective Phrase. 

Examples. 

1. The people's will The will of the people. 

2. Webster's Dictionary A Dictionary written by Webster. 

3. Boys' caps Caps suitable for boys. 

4. " He heard the king's command The command of the king. 

5. And saw that writing's truth." The truth of that writing. 

Obs. 5. — But they are not always equivalent. 

Examples.— -1. The love of virtue is not virtue's love. 

2. The desire of leisure is not leisure's desire. 

Hence, 
Note 2. — Possessive Specifying Adjectives and Adjec- 
tive Phrases should not be substituted the one for the 
other when they are not fully equivalent.* 

(See Examples above.) 

* The laws of interchange of Possessive Adjectives and their kindred Adjec- 
tive Phrases are as follows : 

1. When the Object of the Prepositional Phrase constitutes the Agent of an 
action, state, feeling, etc., implied in the Substantive limited, the Phrase and 
the corresponding Possessive Adjective are equivalent, and, therefore, inter- 
changeable. Thus, 

1. The people's will The will of the people. 

2. The sun's rays The rays of the sun. 

3. Webster's last speech The last speech of Webster. 

2. When the Object of the Prepositional Phrase constitutes also the Logical 
Object of an action, state, feeling, etc., implied in the Substantive limited, the 
Phrase and the corresponding Possessive Adjective are not equivalent, and, 
consequently, can not be interchanged. Thus, 

Correct.—" The doctrine of Divine Sovereignty." 
Incorrect. — Divine Sovereignty's doctrine. 

3. When the Object of the Prepositional Phrase maybe the Logical Subject 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 279 

Obs. 6. — Adjectives derived from Nouns and Pronouns in the 
Possessive Case, often retain their Substantive character, and may 
be qualified by other Adjectives. 

Example.—" He saw that writing's truth.'" " That" specifies " writing." 
He saw the truth of that writing. 

Rem. — This observation is also applicable to other Adjectives 
derived from Nouns, and to Numeral Adjectives. 

Examples.— 1. " A cast iron hinge." " Cast" qualifies " iron ;" and " iron" 
is an Adjective. 
2. Two hundred dollars. "Two" specifies "hundred;" and 
" hundred," thus modified, limits " dollars." 

Obs. 7. — A word in the Possessive form is often used to specify 
a Phrase. 

Examples.— 1. " Upon Mr. Talbot's being made Lord Chancellor" 
2. " From our being born into the present world." 

Obs. 8. — In constructions like the above, the Possessive sign 
should not be omitted. 

Correct Construction. — " All presumption of death's being the destruction of 
living beings, must go upon the supposition that they are compounded." 

Incorrect Construction.—!. " Nor is there so much as any appearance of our 
limbs being endued with a power of moving" etc.—Bj). Butler. 

2. " A fair wind is the cause of a vessel sailing." 

Rem. — In the last example, the author intended to say that wind 
is the cause of an act — an act expressed by the word " sailing." 

But he makes himself say that wind is the cause of a thing — a 
thing named by the word " vessel." 

Corrected.— Wind is the cause of a vessel's sailing. 

Obs. 9. — Possessive Adjectives are sometimes qualified by Sen- 
tences introduced by Relative Pronouns and by Phrases. 

or the Logical Object of the action, state, etc., implied in the Substantive lim- 
ited, the use of the Phrase generally occasions ambiguity, and is inadmissible 
without the addition of some other Element. Thus, 

" The love of God shall make their bliss secure." 

Rem.— This may mean God's love to them or their love to God. 

If we intend the former, the ambiguity may be removed by the Phrase to 
them, placed after the word " God ;" or, if the latter, by the word their in place 
of the word " the." Thus, 

1. The love of God to them shall make their bliss secure. 

t2. Their love of God shall make their bliss secure. 



280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III 

Examples.— 1. " How various his employments whom the world calls idle /" 

2. " I have spoken of his eminence as a judge." 

3. " Heaven be their resource who have no other but the charity 

of the world." 

Eem. — It is the Substantive Element in the Possessive Adjective 
that is thus limited by the Auxiliary Sentence. Thus, " his" is 
equivalent to " of him ;" and " him" is limited by the Sentence 
" whom tlie world calls idle" 

Position of the Possessive. 

Obs. 10. — When the Possessive is used AcTjectively, it is placed 
before the Noun or the Pronoun which it specifies. 
Examples. — 1. The widow's mite. 

2. The culprit's confession. 

Obs. 11. — Like other Specifying Adjectives, it precedes Qualify- 
ing Adjectives belonging to the same Noun or Pronoun. 
Examples.— 1. u The brook's bright wave." 
2. " The wind's low sigh." 

Obs. 12.— Possessive Adjectives, in addition to their primary 
office, sometimes introduce Auxiliary Sentences. 

Example. — " All are hut parts of one stupendous whole, 

Whose body Nature is, and God the soul." — Pope. 

Kem. — In this Sentence, " whose" is an Adjunct of " body," and 
it is used also to introduce the Adjunct Sentence, " Whose body 
Nature is." 

Obs. 13. — The Possessive Adjective often denotes the agent of 
an act expressed by a Participle. 

Examples.— 1. " I have an engagement which prevents my staying longer 
with you." 
2. " I allude to your inviting mc to your forests."— Pope. 

Who invited me ? — you. 

This observation also applies to Substantives. 
Example.— The boy's mistake. Who mistook ?— the boy. 

Adjectives in Predicate. 

Note 3. — An Adjective, like a Participle, may be used 
in Predicate with a Verb, when the Verb requires its aid 
to make the assertion. 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 281 

Examples.— 1. " His palsied hand waxed strong." 

2. " Canst thou grow sad as earth grows bright /" 

3. Vanity often renders man contemptible. 

4. Virtue always makes man happy. 

Obs. 1. — Many English Verbs contain the signification of such 
Adjectives in themselves. Thus, 

" Waxed strong 1 ' has its equivalent, strengthened. 

" Grows bright 1 ' " " brightens. 

"Makes happy" " " happijies. 

Obs. 2. — But not all Predicate Adjectives have their equivalent 
Verbs. Thus, for the Predicate " renders contemptible," we have 
not the Verb, contemptibleize. 

Obs. 3. — Participles, like Verbs, sometimes require the use of Ad- 
jectives to complete the sense. Adjectives thus used are said to 
be " in Predicate." 

Examples. — 1. " The desire of being happy reigns in all hearts." 



LThe ) 



desire If 



reigns 



[of I t W S-— . v \ I in j hearts ) 

L^ ^ being happy jj \^_ J ^ ^ ^ — * 



2. Her highest happiness consists in making others happy, 
Obs. 4. — Adjectives may be in Predicate — 
1. With Transitive Verbs — Active Voice. 
Examples.— 1. " They'll make me mad, they'll make me mad." 



C They ) f will t make t mad j £ me j 

2. " The study of science tends to make us devout." 

2. With Passive Verbs. 

Examples.— 1. " He was made wretched by his own folly." 



( He V was made wretched ^ 

L ^ folly ~) 

(his JXow n ) 

2. " The children ivere rendered miserable by the sins of tho 
father." 

3. With Neuter and other Intransitive Verbs. 

Examples.— 1. " How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood.' 1 
(See Diagram, p. f$f.) 
2. " Be not therefore grieved nor angry with yourselves.". 



282 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

4. With Verbs — Infinitive Mode. 

Examples.— 1. " The study of science tends to make us devout" 
2. " Dost thou well to be angry?" 



C thon ) ^~Dost well ") 

[ t0 J be angry ) 
3. " I own it made my blood run cold." 

5. With Participles as Adjectives. 
Example.— " Falling short of this, we can not succeed." 

6. With Participles as Verbal Nouns.. 

Examples. — 1. " Her life was spent in making others happy." 

f life Y was spent J 

C Her ) 1 - W ' 

^ m / ( ^making happy ^ others ^ 

2. " Becoming angry at trifles is indicative of a weak mind." 



Obs. 5. — This construction of the Adjective should be carefully 
distinguished from that in which it is used as a representative of an 
Adverbial Phrase. 

Examples.— 1. " Caled entered every day early and returned late." 
2. " The surging billows come crouching to his feet." 



Q billows ^ come ) 

{jn^Jj^^r^y [X j-y ) J to / feet ) 

^V*; 1 (crouching) w ( his J 



" Early" .is substituted for <x£ <m £a?% fow. 

" Late" " at a late hour. 

" Crouching" ... " " m & crouching attitude. 

Hence, " early," u late," and " crouching" are to be parsed — 

1. As Adverbs — being used as representatives of Adverbial 
Phrases. 

2. But in the analysis of these Phrases, these words are to be 
parsed in their individual capacity, as Adjectives, qualifying their 
Substantives understood. 

Rem. — For Substantives in Predicate, see " Independent Case." 

FOKM. 

Note 4. — Adjectives used in Predicate should not take 
the Adverbial form. 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 283 

Examples. 
Incorrect.— 1. William feels badly to-night. 2. I feel sadly. 

3. How beautifully it looks ! 4. It appears strangely to me. 
Corrected.— William feels bad to-night. I feel sad. 

How beautiful it looks ! It appears strange to me. 

Rem. — It will be noticed that the Adjective in Predicate does 
not modify the Verb. It describes the Subject with the aid of the 
Verb. Hence, 

Obs. 1. — Adverbs are not used as a part of the Grammatical 
Predicate. 

Obs. 2. — The Verb used in Predicate with an Adjective is some- 
times suppressed. 

Examples.— 1. " No position, however exalted, could satisfy his ambition." 
2. " A man may grow rich by seeming poor." 

However exalted [it may be]. 
By seeming [to be] poor. 

Position of Adjectives. 

Note 5. — Adjectives should be so placed as to clearly 
represent the sense intended. 

Obs. 3. — An Adjective Word is commonly placed before its 

Noun and after its Pronoun : an Adjective Phrase or Sentence after 

its Noun or Pronoun. 

Examples. 

Word.—l. An influential man. 
Phrase. — 2. A man of influence. 
Sentence.— 3. A man who possesses influence. 

Obs. 4. — But when an Adjective Word is limited or modified by 
a Phrase, it is commonly placed after its Noun. 

Examples.— 1. " Seest thou a man diligent in his business." 
2. " Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again." 

Obs. 5. — When the same word is qualified by two or more Ad- 
jectives, the one denoting the most definite quality should be 
placed next it ; and, when one Adjective specifies and the other 
qualifies, the Qualifying Adjective is placed next the Noun. 

Examples. — 1. An industrious young man. 

2. A large sweet apple. 

3. " Sound the loud timbrel o'er Egypt's dark sea.'* 



284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART IIL 

Note 6. — An Adjective in Predicate is placed imme- 
diately after its Verb or Participle. 

Examines.— t. " Which maketh glad the heart of man." 

2. " Canst thou grow sad as earth grows bright /" 

3. " His palsied hand waxed strong." 

4. " And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill." 

5. " How various his employments whom the world calls idle /" 

Obs. 1. — Exception 1. — When the Verb is Transitive, its Object 
is sometimes — not always — placed between it and the Adjective in 
Predicate. 

Examples. — 1. " Vanity often renders man contemptible." 
2. " Winter maketh the light heart sad." 

Obs. 2. — Exception 2. — For the sake of euphony, for emphasis, or 
for rhythm, the Adjective is sometimes placed before the Verb. 
Examples.— 1. " Hard is my fate, cried the heart-broken stranger." 
2. " Bloodless are these limbs, and cold." 

Obs. 3. — This construction should be carefully distinguished 
from that in which the Adjective qualifies the Object of the Verb. 
Example.—" But we left him alone with his glory." 

Exercises in Review, 
page 
266.— What is an Adjunct? 

What may be the. forms of Adjuncts ? 
1. " A man who has talents, will succeed in business." 

Condense this by replacing the Sentence Adjunct by a 

Phrase. 
Eeplace the Phrase by an equivalent Word. 
267. — Are all Adjunct Words, Phrases, and Sentences interchange- 
able ? 
What Elements of Sentences may be affected by Adjuncts ? 
268. — How are Adjuncts of Substantives to be parsed ? 
How are Logical Adjuncts commonly construed ? 
270. — Repeat Rule 7. — Make Sentences to illustrate. 
271.— In what distinct methods do Adjectives describe Substan- 
tives ? 
Is a Word used Acljectively in one Sentence, always an Ad- 
jective? 
Wherein do Adjectives commonly differ inform from Sub- 
stantives of similar signification ? 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES, 285 

PAGE 

272. — Repeat Note 1. — Make Sentences to illustrate. 

What Adjectives are commonly used in Comparisons of 

Equality? 
What Word introduces the second term of the Comparison? 
Supply the proper Words omitted in the following Sentences : 

2. " Anna is— tall as Clarissa." 

3. "Rachel is not— tall as Mary." 

Repeat Note 2. — Make Sentences to illustrate Obs. 

273. — What Word introduces the second term of a Comparison of 
Inequality? 

4. " Delia is taller— Isabella, but not fairer — Helen." 

Supply the proper Words in the above Sentence. 
Repeat Note 4. — Make Sentences to illustrate. 

Correct the following Sentences, and give proper authority 

for each criticism. 
See Note 5, and Observations. 

5. " Shakspeare is more faithful to the true language of Nature than 

any writer." — Blair. 

6. " Cibber grants it to be a better poem of its kind than ever was 

written."— Poj>e. 

7. " The Christian religion gives a more lovely character of God 

than any religion ever did."— Murray. 

8. " Of all other nations, ours has the best form of government. It 

is, of all others, that which most moves us." — Sheridan. 

275. — Repeat Note 7. — Make Sentences to illustrate. 
By Notes 8, 9, or by the Observations. 

9. "Northern Spy is fine specimen of an apple." 

10. u Lawrence is abler mathematician than a linguist." 

11. " The highest title in the State is that of the Governor." 

12. " Organic chemistry treats of the animal and vegetable kingdom." 

13. " The north and south poles are indicated on the map." 

14. " Mary, widow of the late Col. Clark, and the mother of the Gov- 

ernor, resides with us." 

15. " Substitutes have three Persons ; the First, Second, and the 

Third."— PSm^s Grammar. 

16. " In some cases we can use either the Nominative or Accusative, 

promiscuously."— Adams' 1 Latin Grammar. 

17. "I doubt his capacity to teach either the French or English 

languages." 



286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

PAGE 

18. " The passive and neuter verbs I shall reserve for some future 

consideration. "—IngersoWs Grammar. 

19. " i£has a long and short sound."— BicknelVs Grammar. 

20. " The perfect participle and imperfect tense ought not to be 

confounded."— Murray. 

276.— By Note 10. 

21. " There is, however, another, and a more limited sense." 

22. u Novelty produces in the mind a vivid and an agreeable emo- 

tion." — Blair. 

23. " Jewell, the poet and the professor of English literature, has 

criticised it." 

By Note 11. 

24. "I have not been in London this five years." 

25. " If I had not left off troubling you about those kind of things." 

26. " They are these kind of gods which Horace mentions." 

27. " Many things are not that which they appear to be." 

By Note 12. 

28. " The wall is ten foot high."— Harrison's Grammar. 

29. " A close prisoner, in a room twenty foot square.''''— Locke. 

30. " These verses consist of two sort of rhymes."— Formey. 

31. '"Tis for a thousand pound."— Cowper. 

277. — Repeat Eule 8. — Make Sentences to illustrate. 
Correct the following errors by Obs. 1, 2, 3, 4. 

32. " I have neither John nor Eliza's books." — Nixon. 

33. " James relieves neither the boy nor the girl's distress." 

34. " Which, for distinction sake, I shall put down severally." 

35. " King James translators merely revised former translations." 

243. — Repeat Note 1. — Make Sentences to illustrate. 

244. — Repeat Note 2. — Make Sentences to illustrate. 
Correct the following errors by Obs. 6, 7, 8. 

36. " The General in the army's name, published a declaration."— 

Hume. 

37. " The bill passed the Lord's house, but failed in the Commons." 

38. " It is curious enough that this sentence of the Bishop is, itself, 

ungrammatical."— CobbetVs Grammar. 

39. " We should presently be sensible of the melody suffering." 

40. " This depends on their being more or less emphatic, and on the 

vowel-sound being long or short." 

41. " Whose principles forbid them taking part in the administra 

tion of the government." — Liberator. 



SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 



287 



247.— Repeat Note 3. — Make Sentences to illustrate. 

248. — Repeat Note 4. — Make Sentences to illustrate. 
Correct the following errors : 

42. " The group of little misses appeared most lovely and beauti* 

fully y 

43. " Heaven opened widely her everlasting gates." 

44. " The poor girl feels very badly about it." — Hawley. 

45. " The sight appeared terribly to me." 

46. " Did not Lois look most beautifully at the lecture ?" 



ADVERBS. 

Kule 9. — Adverbs belong to Verbs, to Adjectives, and 
to other Adverbs which they modify. 

Obs. 1. — An Adverb may consist of a Word, a Phrase, or a Sen- 
tence. 

(^ soon ) 

C_j__J (~ 8hal1 g° ) 



Word— I. I shall go soon. 
Phrase.— 2. I shall go in a short time. 

Sentence.— 3. I shall go ere dc 



a l time ) 

I a / (short ) 



Obs. 2.— An Adverb may modify a Word, a Phrase, or a Sentence. 
Examples. 

1. William studies diligently. 
" Diligently" modifies a Word. 

2. Arthur went almost to Boston. 
" Almost" modifies a Phrase. 



C I X shall go ) 

'C gpE) 

(^day y departs*) 

'ase, or a Senten 

(^William ~Y studies " ) 

( ^diligently ) 

C Arthur^ went ) 



^J Boston) 



3. "Not AS THE CONQUEROR COMES, 

They, the true-hearted, came." 
" Not" modifies a Sentence. 



( Th ey V ca me "j 

f trae-hearted 1 >* ( 



( ^conqueror^ comes ) * 



288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART III. 

Adverbial Words. 

Note 1. — In the use of Adverbs, that form should be 
adopted which is in accordance with the best authority. 

Obs. 1. — Most Adverbs are derivative words, and are generally 
formed by adding ly (formerly written lie — a contraction of 1 i k e) 
to its Primitive. 

Examples. — 1. A just man will deal justly. 

2. A foolish man will act foolishly. 

Obs. 2. — When an Adjective supplies the place of an Adverb, by 
representation, the Adjective form should be retained. 

Examples. 

1. The house was painted green. 

2. Open thy mouth ivide. 



Expanded.—!. The house was painted with green paint. 
2. Open thy mouth to a wide extent. 

" Green" and u wide" are Adverbs by representation. 

Obs. 3. — This construction should be carefully distinguished from 
that of Adjectives in Predicate. 

Examples. 

Correct.— 1. The orange tasted sweet. 

^ ^ , „ , ,-, ( orange Y tasted sweet ] 

2. Yelvet feels smooth. 

3. Some deemed him wondrous wise. 

4. The grass looks green. 

Incorrect. — 1. The orange tasted sweetly. 

2. Velvet feels smoothly. 

3. Some deemed him wondrous wisely 

4. The grass looks greenly. 




( orange ) ( 
I The ) 



Obs. 4. — The words which Adverbs properly modify are some- 
times suppressed. 

Example. — " Thou canst but add one bitter woe 

To those [ ] already there:'— Which are already there. 

Obs. 5! — Adverbs sometimes supply the place of Verbs which 
they modify. 

Examples.— 1. "Back to thy punishment, false fugitive."— #0 back. 
2. " Til away to the pleasant land."— I'll go away. 



SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 289 

Obs. 6.— Many words, commonly used as Adverbs, often take 
the place of Nouns, and become Pronouns. 
Examples.— 1. Till then— for till that time. 

2. From thence— for from that place. 

3. And I have made a pilgrimage from far. —Hosmer. 

Obs. 7.— Participles become Adverbs whenever they indicate the 
manner of an action or modify a quality. 
Examples.— 1. " 'Tis strange, 'tis passing strange." 

2. " A virtuous household, but exceeding poor. 11 

3. " Beulah's cheeks grew burning red. 11 

Obs. 8. — But most Participial Adverbs have the suffix ly added. 
Examples.— 1. " He spoke feelingly on that subject. 11 

2. " She conducted herself most lovingly throughout. 11 

Obs. 9. — Or they become Adverbs by representation. 

Examples. — 1. " Now it mounts the wave, 

And rises, threatening, to the frowning sky. 11 
2. " The surging billows and the gamboling storms 
Come, crouching, to his feet. 11 

" Come" in a " crouching" attitude. (See Obs. 2, above, also p. 22.) 

Obs. 10. — A few words, commonly employed as Prepositions, are 
sometimes used Adverbially. 

Examples. — 1. " Thou didst look down upon the naked earth." 

2. " And may, at last, my weary age 

Find out the peaceful hermitage. 11 

3. "Master Sir Philip, you may come m." 

Negative Adverbs. 

Note 2. — But one Negative Word or Particle should 
be used in asserting a negative proposition. For, 

Obs. 1. — Two Negatives applied to the same act or quality gen- 
erally make it affirmative. 

Examples.— 1. " Not without cause. 11 

2. " Such occurrences are not wttfrequent. 11 

Obs. 2. — Negative Prefixes in derivative words have the same 
force as Negative Adverbs. 

Examples.— 1. " He was not w/?,mindful of his obligations. 11 
2. " Such expressions are not inelegant. 11 
13 



290 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PABT III. 






Rem. — Such expressions have not always the full force of the 
corresponding affirmative assertions, but serve to negative the 
negative assertion. 

Obs. 3. — (a) Negative Adverbs are used primarily to modify 
Verbs. 

Examples.— 1. " They wept not.'"— " Not" modifies " wept" 

(b) To modify Adjectives. 

2. Not one of the family was there. 



( one -Y was j 



3. " Not every one that saith unto me, ' Lord t Lord V Shall en- 
ter into the kingdom of heaven." 



one 


X 


6hatl enter ^ 




f every ~\ 

X Not ) 




( into J kingdom ) 






{j^hej [ot\ heaven 


) 





(c) To modify other Adverbs — Words, Phrases, or Sentences. 
Word— 4. He is not generally agreeable. 



f " Re X ls , a g reeab le J 

i g enerally ^ 
( uot j 

Phrase.— 5. " They died not fry hunger, or lingering decay, 

The steel of the white man hath swept them away." 



( They Y" died ) 

I *J hr mprer J 
^ not_ ) 

Sentence.— 6. "Not as ^<? conqueror comes,* 

They, the true-hearted, came." 
(See Diagram, p. 287.) 

* The influence of the Negatives, not, neither, etc., is often exerted on Nouns, 
Phrases, and whole Sentences. And, generally, when a Negative occurs in 
connection with other Adjuncts, the influence of the Negative reaches the 
whole proposition, including the other Adjuncts. Thus, in Example 6, " not" 
modifies the phrase, " by hunger or lingering decay" And in Example 7, " not" 
negatives the sentence " as the conqueror comes." 

Let the word "not," in sentences 6 and 7, be parsed by a devotee of those 
systems of grammar that ignore the etymological offices of Phrases and of 
Sentences. Will he not also " ignore" common sense? Does u not" modify 
"died ?" Then they are still living ! 



SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 291 

Obs. 4. — The responsive words yes, yea, no, nay, are independent 
in construction. 

Position of Adverbs. 

Note 3. — The Position of Adverbs should be such as 
most clearly to convey the sense intended. 

Obs. 1. — Ad verbs which modify Verbs generally precede a single 
Verb in Predicate. 

Examples. — 1. " Man naturally seeks his own happiness." 

2. " Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains." 

Obs. 2. — When the Predicate consists of more than one word, 
the Adverb is commonly placed after the first word in Predicate. 
Examples.— 1. " We can not honor our country with too deep a reverence." 

2. " I have always been an admirer of happy human faces." 

3. " I will never leave thee nor forsake thee." 

Obs. 3. — Adverbs modifying Adjectives are placed before their 
Adjectives. 

Examples. — 1. " The very rich man can never be truly happy." 
2. " The selfish man can never be truly polite." 

Exception. — The word enough, used Adverbially, is commonly 
placed after its Adjective ; as, " It is good enough for me." 

Obs. 4. — Adverbs are placed before other Adverbs which they 
modify. 

Examples.— 1. " How lightly mounts the muse's wing." 

2. " Too low they build, who build beneath the stars." 

3. "Ralph's mill is driven partly by water and partly BY 

STEAM." 

4. " They died not by hunger nor lingering decay." 

5. " Some work only for pleasure." 

Obs. 5. — Adverbial Phrases are commonly placed after the words 
which they modify. 

Examples.— 1. " There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin." 

2. " Time slept onjlowers and lent his glass to Hope." 

Obs. 6. — Adverbial Sentences are commonly placed after the 
words which they modify. 

Examples. — 1. " The firmament grows brighter with every golden grain, 
As handful after handful falls on the azure plain.'''' 
2. " And I am glad that he has lived thus long." 



292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Hem. — To the above rules for the Position of Adverbial Elements 
there are numerous exceptions. No specific rules can be given 
which will always be applicable. The judgment and taste of the 
writer are required to decide as to the Position of all the Elements 
of Sentences. 

HP Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors. 

1. " A Christian should always act benevolent." 

2. The fields look greenly. 

3. Some of the pupils looked sadly, and others looked gladly. 

4. Never bestow your favors grudging. 

5. Every one that runs a race shall not win the prize. 

6. Every one that does not run a race shall win the prize. 

7. I have been always a lover of children. 

8. Some only work for pleasure. (So they never play for pleasure ?) 

9. That hat was expressly made for me. 

10. " The comparative degree can only be used in reference to two objects." 
—Brown's Grammar, p. 140. 

11. " Most men dream, but all do not^—Beattee's Mor., Sec. 72. 

12. " But every man is not called James." — Buchanan's Grammar, p. 15. 

13. "I do not think I can tell."— Many Pupils* 

14. " Some people only wovk for pleasure." 

15. " I have not seen none of your books." 

16. " Ernest feels happily to-night." 

17. "I never will disturb my quiet with the affairs of state." 

18. The day was pleasant very, and the wind fair exceedingly. 

Special Cautions. 

(1) In forming Complex Sentences, be careful to apply the 
Negative to the right Verb. 

Examples. 
Incorrect.— I do not think I can tell. 
Corrected.— 1 think I can not tell. 

(2) Do not use an Adjective Word for an Adverb. 

Examples. 
Incorrect.— Since her late sickness she does not hear good. 
Corrected.— Since her late sickness she does not hear well. 

(3) Avoid the use of the Adjective "such" for the Adverb "so. 



SYNTAX OF Ab VERBS. 293 

Example. 
Incorrect.— 1 have not seen such a good boy in this school. 
Corrected. — I have not seen so good a boy. 

Exercises in* Analysis akd Parsing. 

" How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, 
When fond Recollection presents them to view." 



f scenes jf are dear J 



(Recollectiou Y J presents^ them ) 
\ fond J (toj-^T) 

ANALYSIS. 

Principal Ele- j The Subject. " Scenes" ) Intransitive 

ments / The Predicate " Are clear." [ Sentence. 

Of the ( " The" A Word. 

Subject ( u Of my childhood" A Ph?*ase. 

f"How" ....A Word. 

Of the J " To my heart" A Phrase. 

Predicate ... 1 " When fond Recollection 



Adjuncts 



presents them to view." f A Sentence - 
Parsed by the Chart. — Model. 

" How" An Element in the Sentence — Adjunct— Primary 

— Word — Adverb — of Decree. (Repeat Rule 9.) 
" Dear" An Element in the Sentence — Principal Part — " in 

Predicate" — Adjective. (Repeat Note 3 to Rule 7.) 
" To my heart" . .An Element in the Sentence — Adjunct — Phrase — 

Adverbial — Prepositional — Intransitive. (Repeat 

Rule 9.) 
ix Are" An Element in the Sentence — Principal Element 

— in Predicate — Verb — Indicative Mode — Present 

Tense — agreeing in Person and Number with 

" scenes." (Repeat Rule 2.) 
" The" An Element in the Sentence — Adjunct — Word — ■ 

Adjective — Specifying — Pure. (See Rule 7.) 
' Scenes" An Element in the Sentence — Principal Part — 

Subj ect — Word — Noun — Common — Third Person 

— Plural Number — Subjective Case. (Repeat 

Rule 1.) 



294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

„ ^ n , „ , ( An Element in the Sentence— Adjunct — Phrase— 

Or itiv fhi Ift- i 
1 d" ) Adjective — Prepositional— Intransitive. (Repeat 

( Rule 7.) 

" When fond "j An Element in the Principal Sentence— Adjunct 
Recollection . __ Sentence __ Adverbial — Simple — Transitive, 
presents them j /T > . n n . 
to view" .... J ( Re P eat RuLE 9 -) 

Rem. 1. — For the analysis of the Phrases, " To my heart," and 
" Of my childhood," see p. 185. 

Rem. 2. — The Auxiliary Sentence, ." When fond Recollection 
presents them to view," may now be analyzed by the above for- 
mula, as a distinct Sentence. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Rule 10. — A Participle has the same construction as 
the " part of speech" for which it is used. 

Rem. — Participles may be used in every " Part of Speech." (See 
p. 124.) 

I. Participles used as Nouns. 

Note 1. — A Participle used as a Noun may be — 

1. The Subject of a Sentence. 

Examples.— 1. " The beginning of strife is as when one letteth out water." 

2. " The plowing of the wicked is sin." 

3. " Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief \ 

can not be regarded as robbing him" 



[ Taking ~Y sword ~J 
fm adman's j 




r ~"j (madman 's ) \f ^ 

I i^ aj | canbe regarded ) 



^^X^^^^J^ 111 I l 1^-^— _^ 



2. The Object of a Verb. 

4. " I doubted his having been a soldier." 

5. " While you strive to bear being laughed at." 

6. " Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief 

can not be regarded as robbing him.'" 



SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 295 

3. The Object of a Preposition. 

7. " In the beginning" 

8. " Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying 

of our wants : Riches upon enjoying our superfluities.'* 
— Addison. 

9. " Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief, 

can not be regarded as robbing him." 

Note 2. — A Participle used as a Noun, i. e., as the 
name of an action, retains its Verbal character, and may 
be followed by an Object when it is the leader of a Par- 
ticipial Phrase. 

Examples.— 1. " They could not avoid giving offence. 

2. " Its excesses may be restrained without destroying its 

existence." 

3. Receiving goods, known to be stolen, is a criminal offence. 

4. We have succeeded in making a beginning.* 

Obs. — A Participle, being the Leader of a Participial Phrase, 
often has its Subject suppressed. 

Rem. — In Sentence 1, above, " they" is the implied agent of the 
action expressed by " giving." 

In Sentences 2 and 3, the agents of " destroying" and of " receiv- 
ing" are neither expressed nor implied. 

In Sentence 4, " we" is the implied Subject of" making." 

Note 3. — The agent of an action expressed by a Par- 
ticiple is sometimes expressed, and should be in the 
Possessive Form. 

Examples.— 1. " We have heard of his going to the Falls. 1 ' 

2. " I doubted his having been a soldier." 

3. " Mr. Burton objected to his son's joining the army." 

Note 4. — The sign of the Possessive Case of Nouns 
and Pronouns, used as the Logical Subjects of Participles, 
should not be omitted. 

* •• Giving offence" is a Substantive Phrase — Object of the Verb "avoid.'" 
ik Giving" is the Leader of the Phrase. "Offence" is the Subsequent— Object 
of *• giving." 

In Sentence 4, "Making a beginning" is a Substantive Phrase— Object of the 
Preposition '*in." " Making" is the Leader of the Participial Phrase: "be- 
ginning" is the Subsequent— Object of "making." (See also the preceding 
diagram.) 



296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Examples. 
Improper Construction.—!. " A fair wind is the cause of a vessel sailing.'* 
2. He opposed me going to college. 
Corrected.— 1. A fair wind is the cause of a vessel's sailing. 
2. He opposed my going to college. 

Obs. 1. — The Logical Subject of a Participle may be in the Ob- 
jective Case only as the Object of a Preposition. 

Examples. — 1. " The plowing of the wicked is sin. 1 " 

2. "By the crowing of the cock, we knew that morning was 
nigh." 

Rem. — " Cock" is the Object of the Preposition " of," and is there- 
fore in the Objective Case. But it is also the Agent of the Action 
implied in the word "crowing ;" and is, therefore, the Logical Sub- 
ject of the Verbal Noun, " crowing." 

Obs. 2. — Phrases thus used as Adjuncts of Participles are some- 
times equivalent to Possessive Specifying Adjectives, and, there- 
fore, are interchangeable. 

Examples.— -1. The crowing of the cock.— The cock's crowing. 
2. " We listened to the singing of the children.''' 
We listened to the children's singing. 

Obs. 3. — The Definitive, the, should be placed before a Verbal 
Noun whose Logical Subject is the Object of the Preposition of. 
Example.—" The ploaving of the wicked is sin." 

Obs. 4. — The Definitive, the, should not be placed before a Verbal 
Noun whose Logical Subject is in the Possessive Case. 
Example.—" You object to my plowing the garden so early." 

Note 5. — A Participle used to introduce a Participial 
Phrase, has the same construction as the Phrase which 
it introduces. 

1. " Suspecting the treachery of our guide, we made preparations 
for defending ourselves from any hostile attacks." 



( we Y m a de ^preparations) 

( suspecting treachery ) [f ot j[[ def ending ^ourselves) 

|t h ^ )f J~guide ) 

Here " suspecting" and " defending'''' are Participles, each used to 
introduce a Participial Phrase; but 



SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 297 



11 Suspecting the treachery of our 
guide" shows a condition of 
"we." Hence, an Adjective 
Phrase. 

" Suspecting" describes " we," 
by expressing, incidentally, an 
act of " we." Hence, a Verbal 
Adjective. 

2. Suspicious of the treachery of our guides, we made prepara- 
tions for defence. 



" Defending ourselves" is a Par- 
ticipial Phrase — Object of the 
Preposition " for." Hence, a 
Substantive Phrase. 

"Defending" is the name of 
an act, Object of the Preposi- 
tion " for." Hence, a Verbal 
Noun. 



" Suspicious" describes " we" 
by expressing a condition or state 
of " we" Hence, an Adjective. 



" Defence" is a name, Object 
of the Preposition " for." Hence, 
a Noun. 



II. Participles used as Adjectives. 

Note 6. — A Participle used as an Adjective belongs to 
a Noun or a Pronoun which it describes ; and may be 
modified by Adverbs. 

Examples.— 1. " Whose visages 

Do cream and mantle like a standing pond. 
2. " Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle 
Wheeling near its brow. 1 '* 



x 



eagle ) 



X P enk ) ^ ^wheeling ) 



scaling 



its 

3. u We saw it plunging 'mid the billowy strife, 
And dashing madly on to fearful doom." 

Obs. — The Participle, used as an Element in an Independent 
Phrase, may be suppressed when the sense is not thereby rendered 
obscure. 

* "Scaling yonder peak 1 ' is a Phrase— Adjunct of "I;" hence, Adjective. 
" Wheeling near its brow 11 is a Participial Phrase — Adjunct of " eagle ;" hence, 
Adjective. " Near its brow 11 is a Prepositional Phrase — Adjunct of "wheel- 
ing; 1 ' hence. Adverbial. 

In Sentence 3, "'Mid the billowy strife 1 ' is an Adjunct of "plunging." 
" Madly," and " on," and " to fearful doom," being Adjuncts of " dashing," are 
Adverbs. 

13* 



298 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART TIL 

Examples.— 1. " Thus talking, hand [ ] in hand, alone they passed 
On to their blissful bower."— Hand being m hand. 
2. * 4 Now, man to man and steel to steel, 

A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel." 
Man being opposed to man. 

Rem. 1. — It should be remarked, that such omissious of Partici- 
ples occur only when they have Adjuncts. 

Rem. 2. — In analyzing and parsing such Adjuncts, it is necessary 
to restore the Participles to which they belong. Thus, " in hand" 
is a Phrase — Adjunct of being, understood ; hence, an Adverbial 
Phrase. " To man" is an Adjunct of being opposed, understood. 

III. Participles used as Adverbs. 

Note 7. — Participles used Adverbially, belong to Verbs, 
to Adjectives, or to Adverbs, which they modify. 

Example.— -'Tis strange ! His passing strange. 

Obs. — Participles are seldom used Adverbially without the ter- 
mination ly. 

Example. — " He spoke feelingly on that subject." 

IY. Participles used as Prepositions. 

Note 8. — A Participle used as a Preposition shows a 
relation of its object to the word which its Phrase 
qualifies. 

Example.— " He said nothing concerning his temporal affairs." 

Obs, — The young scholar often rinds it difficult to determine 
whether a Participle is used as a Preposition or as an Adjective. 
His difficulties on this subject will vanish when he recollects that — 

1. A Participle used as a Preposition does not relate to a Noun or to 
a Pronoun — it generally introduces an Adverbial Phrase. 

2. A Participle used as an Adjective alicays relates to a Noun or to 
a Pronoun — it generally introduces an Adjective Phrase. 

V. Participles used in Predicate with Verbs. 

Note 9. — A Participle used in Predicate asserts an 
act, being, or state, and may be modified by Adverbs. 

Example.—" We are anxiously expecting to hear from William. 1 ' 



PARTICIPLES. 299 

Note 10. — In the use of Participles in Predicate, the 
proper modification should be used. 

1. When an action is to be predicated of the Subject, 
i. e., when the Subject performs the act, the Active Par- 
ticiple should be used. 

Examples. — 1. Henry is reciting his lesson. 
2. People are building the church. 

2. When the Subject is to be represented as receiving 
the action, the Passive Participle should be used 

Examples.— 1. Henry's lesson is being recited. 

2. The church is being built. (See pp. 212-13.) 

Note 11. — The Participial Phrase should not be em- 
ployed when the use of the Infinitive Phrase would be 
more elegant. 

Examples.— 1. "If the case stands thus, His dangerous drinking." 
Better.— If the case stands thus, 'tis dangerous to drink. 

2. " It deserves remarking.' 1 ''— Harris's Hermes. 
Better— -It deserves to be remarked. 

3. " He refused complying with the regulations." 
Better.— He refused to comply with the regulations. 

Note 12. — The Participial Phrase should be used in 
preference to a Sentence, or any other more complicated 
construction, which would express the same idea. 

Examples. 

Sentence.— -1. As I was scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle, which was wheel- 
ing near its brow. 

Participial Phrase.— Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle wheeling near its 
brow. 

Rem. — These Sentences are both grammatically correct ; but the 
latter gives the sentiment fully, and has the advantage of being 
more concise, and is therefore to be preferred. 

Obs. — The Logical Subject of a Participle may be suppressed 
only when the construction is sufficiently clear without it. 

Examples. 

Incorrect.— 1. " Having resigned his commission, the company was dis- 
banded." 



300 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

Incorrect.— 2. " Counting the women and the children, the company was 
ascertained to be too large for the accommodations. 1 ' 
Correct. — 1. (a) He having resigned his commission, the company was dis- 
banded, (See p. 209, Obs. 1.) 
or (b) The captain having resigned his commission, the company 
was disbanded. 
2. (c) On counting the women and the children, the company 
was found to be too large for the accommodations. 
or (d) The women and the children being counted, the company 

was found to be too large for the accommodations. 
or (e) Counting the women and the children, we found that the 
company was too large for the accommodations. 

Exercises in Review. 

([£ip Let the errors in the following Sentences be corrected by a 
proper application of the Notes and Observations under Rule 9. 

1. " It requires no nicety of ear as in the distinguishing of tones, or meas- 

uring time.'"— Sheridan. 

2. " He mentions Newton's writing of a commentary.'" 

3. "The cause of their salvation does not so much arise from their em- 

bracing of mercy, as from God's exercising o/'it." 

4. " Those who accuse us of denying of it, belie us." — Bently. 

5. " In the choice they had made of him for restoring of order." 

6. " The Governor's veto was ivriting while the final vote was taking in the 
Senate." 

7. " To prevent it bursting out with open violence." — Robertson. 

8. " This must prevent any regular proportion of time being settled." — 
Sheridan. 

9. " The compiler proposed publishing that part by itself." — Adams. 

10. " Artaxerxes could not refuse pardoning him.' '—Goldsmith. 

11. " They refused doing so." — Harris. 

12. " Entering the cars, the seats were found to be all occupied." 

The Infinitive Verb. 

Rule 11. — A Verb in the Infinitive Mode is the Object 
of the Preposition to, expressed or understood. 

Rem. — A Verb in the Infinitive Mode is commonly used as a 
Subsequent of an Infinitive Phrase. Hence, it is an Element, not 
in a Sentence, but in a Phrase. 

Obs. 1. — In its office, the Infinitive Verb is always Substantive, 
generally expressing the name of an act, being, or state. 



SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE. 301 



Examples. 
We are prepared to act. 
Equivalent.— We are prepared for action. 



[_ We 


Tare prepared) 




] t 




[to] act J 


(_ We 


Jhire prepared! 



Obs. 2. — Tlie Infinitive Verb is never used as a grammatical 
Predicate; hence, it has no grammatical Subject. But it is often 
the logical Predicate of a Noun or a Pronoun, which may be in 
the Subjective or in the Objective Case. 

Examples.— 1. We love to study. 

2. We requested him to speak. 

Rem. — " We" the grammatical Subject of " love," is also the logical 
Subject of " study.' 1 '' 

"Him" the grammatical Object of "requested," is the logical 
Subject of "speak." 

Note 1. — The Preposition to is generally suppressed 
before Infinitive Verbs following the Verbs bid, but, dare, 
feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and sometimes behold, have, 
help, Jcnoiv, observe, perceive, and some others. 

Examples.— 1. "I plunged in and bade him follow" 

2. " He dares not touch a hair of Catiline." 

3. u Let me hear thy voice awake" 

4. " Clara helped me work that problem." 

5. " I can not but suspect that she assisted Cora too. 

6. " I would not have you go to-day." 

7. " Necessity commands me name myself." 

Obs. 3. — The Infinitive Verb, with its Preposition, is often sup- 
pressed. 

Examples. ( Some Y deemed X bi *P 

1. " Some deemed him wondrous wise." 



2. "Intemperance makes a man [ ] 

Obs. 

Modes. 



j 



„ , ,, { wondrouR J 

a fool." V / 

Obs. 4. — The Infinitive is sometimes elegantly used for other 



Examples. Q I Y am ~~j 

1. " I am to settle this business."— y°J settle Ybusiness) 

Arthur. 



EquivaUnt.-l must settle this busi- C I I^settlef^iness ) 
ness. C this ) 



302 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART III. 

Obs. 5.™ The Preposition to should not be replaced by the Con- 
junction and. 
Incorrect.— Try and do as well as possible. 
Corrected.— Try to do as well as possible. 

The Infikitiye Phrase. 

Obs. 6. — The Infinitive Yerb with its Preposition constitutes an 
Infinitive Phrase, and may be construed as a Substantive, an Adjec- 
tive, or an Adverb. 

Examples. H~~be~^ j ( contents'Y^de^e"^ 

1. " To be, contents his natural de- '"' L^liX n ^. ura D 

sire. 1 ' / . . 

( We jfthould makeX efforts ) 

2. We should make efforts to im- I (tol improved 

prove. ^^z~^zz~y 

liam Y wa& invited") 



William 



3. William was invited to attend lec- 



tures. '»(to attend Y lectures | 



Obs. 7. — An Infinitive Phrase, used Substantively, may be — 

(a) The Subject of a Sentence. 

1. " To be able to read well, is a valuable accomplishment." 

(b) The Object of a Preposition. 

2. " We were about to retire." 

3. " Be so kind as to place that in diagram." 

(c) A Logical Adjunct. 

4. "It is our duty to make good use of our time" 

Eem. — In the opinion of most grammarians, the Verbs love, de- 
sire, wish, expect, and some others, take Infinitive Verbs after them 
as Objects. (See p. 242.) 

Obs. 8. — An Infinitive Phrase, used Adjectively, may be the Ad- 
junct— 

(a) Of the Subject of a Sentence. 

1. " A constant purpose to excel marked his whole career." 

(b) Of the Object of a Sentence. 

2. William has made efforts to improve in speaking. 

(c) Of the Object of a Phrase. 

3. " He arrived in time to give his vote." 

(d) Of a Substantive in Predicate. 

4. That is the business next to be done. 



PREPOSITIONS. 303 

Obs. 9. — An Infinitive Phrase, used Adverbially, maybe the Ad- 
junct — 

(a) Of a Verb in Predicate. 

1. Will you allow me to place this in diagram? 

(b) Of an Adjective in Predicate. 

2. We are ready to depart, 
{c) Of an Adverb. 

3. We were too late to take the cars. 

Obs. 10. — The Infinitive, like other Phrases, is sometimes inde- 
pendent in construction. 

Example.— " And, to be plain with you, I think you more unreasonable than 
he." 

Obs. 11. — The Infinitive Phrase often follows the Words as and 
than. 

Examples.— 1. " An object so high as to be invisible." 

2. " He said nothing further than to give an apology for his 
vote." 

Eem. — In the above and similar examples, as and than are to be 
regarded as Prepositions, having for their Objects the Infinitive 
Phrases following. In like manner it sometimes follows other 
Prepositions. 

Example.— We are about to recite. (See Obs. 7, above.) 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Eule 12. — A Preposition shows a relation of its Object 
to the word which its Phrase qualifies. 

. Obs. 1. — The Object of a Preposition may be — 

1. A Word. ( time \ is ) 



' The time of my depart- C The ) 1 
ure is at hand. 



[of departure) CT han<Q 



2. A Phrase. C hab|t X^ way 1 

" A habit of moving quick- ^ J \^\^^¥^^\0\}^^^L^U 

ly is another way or y \quicki>j 

gaining time." TaISS 

3. A Sentence. C c" e8 X 8trucb X" skie f 3 
"And cries op ' Live for- W OOT^O ^ the ^ 

ever* struck the skies.' ' i 



304 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART III. 

Obs. 2.— A Word, a Phrase, or a Sentence, being the Object of a 
Preposition, is, in its office, Substantive. (See " departure," " hand," 
" moving quickly," " gaining time," and " Live forever," in the 
previous Examples.) 

Obs. 3. — Pronouns which follow Prepositions as their Objects of 
relation should have the Objective form. 

Rem. — For Exceptions, see p. 179. 

Obs. 4. — Words commonly used as Adjectives or Adverbs, often 
become Objects of Prepositions, and are then properly parsed as 
Substantives, in the Objective Case. 

Examples. — 1. "He has faded from earth like a star from on high.''' 

2. John is a friend of mine. 

3. " As yet the trembling year is unconfirmed." 

Obs. 5. — The antecedent term of the relation expressed by a 
Preposition, is sometimes understood. 

Example.— " O refuge 

Meet for fainting pilgrims [ ] on this desert way. 1 '* 

Obs. 6. — Prepositions introducing Substantive and Independent 
Phrases, have no Antecedents. 

Examples. — 1. " As for me and my house, we will serve the Lord." 

2. " And, on the whole, the sight was very painM.V— Todd 

3. " O for a lodge in some vast wilderness. 1 ' — Cowper. 

Obs. 7. — The consequent term of relation may be — 

A Word.—" Re stood before the people." 

A Phrase. — " Time, spent in receiving impertinent visits." 

A Sentence.—" And cries of ' Live forever' struck the skies." 

Obs. 8. — The consequent term of relation — Object— is sometimes 
understood. 



* In the above and similar examples, the ellipsis of the antecedent word 
need not be supplied in parsing, unless the sense plainly requires it. But the 
Phrase may be parsed as qualifying the word which its Antecedent would 
qualify, if expressed. 

" Which flung its purple o'er his path to heaven" 

Here the Phrase "to heaven" properly modifies leading, or a word of similar 
office, understood. But "leading," modified by this Phrase, would qualify 
"path." Hence, the Phrase "to heaven" — as a representative of the whole 
Phrase, " leading to heaven" — may be attached to " path." 



SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 305 

Examples.— 1. " And the waves are white below* [ ]." 

2. " These crowd around [ ] to ask him of his health." 

Prepositions Omitted. 

Eem. — Elegance or conciseness in style determines the omission, 
in speaking and writing, of many words not necessary to complete 
the sense, yet necessary to complete the grammatical construction. 
Perhaps no class of words are thus suppressed more frequently 
than Prepositions. Hence, 

Note. — A Preposition may be omitted when the sense 
is not thereby obscured. 

Obs. 9. — Prepositions should generally be omitted before Subse- 
quents denoting time, value, direction, extent, or before Subsequents 
placed between Transitive Verbs and their Objects. 

Examples. — 1. I visited Rochester three times last week: — at three times, in 
last week. 

2. I paid him one dollar for his knife : — with one dollar. 

3. William came home last night, having rode night and day the 

whole distance : — to Ms home, on last night — during night 
and day— throughout the whole distance. 

4. " The wall is four feet high, and forty rods long:"— high to 

the extent of four feet— long to the distance of forty rods. 

5. Mary gave [ ] me a rose : — Mary gave a rose to me. 

6. I sold [ ] Mr. Shepard my wheat :— sold wheat to Shepard. 

7. William has gone from home to-day — he will come [ ] home 

to-morrow— to his home. 

Obs. 10- -When two or more Subsequents, connected in construc- 
tion, have the same Preposition in common, the Preposition should 
not be repeated. 

Examples.— We passed through Rochester and Syracuse and Utica, on our 
way to Albany and New York. 

Obs. 11. — But when two or more Phrases, combined in con- 
struction, limit the same word, the Preposition should be re- 
peated. 

* Many grammarians call the*e Prepositions Adverbs^ without giving a proper 
explanation. They are Prepositions, having their Objects understood. But, as 
the Phrases of which they form parts are always used Adverbially, the Preposi- 
tions—as representatives of their Phrases— are Adverbs. Hence, when thus 
used, each Preposition performs a double office — Prepositional, as leader of the 
Phrase— Adverbial, as representative of the Phrase. 



306 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III 

Example.— General Rawlins distinguished himself in the cabinet and in the 
field. 




Here, and connects Phrases. 

Rem. — Both good taste and accuracy of expression should decide 
when such suppression of Prepositions should be allowed. 

Obs. 12. — Double Prepositions are sometimes allowed. 
Examples.— 1. " Out of every grove the voice of pleasure warbles." 

2. " There can be no question as to wmich party must yield. 11 

Obs. 13. — But two Prepositions must not be used (except for 
euphony), when one of them will fully express the sense intended. 

Examples.— 1. "Near to this dome is found a path so green: 11 — near this 
dome. 
2. " Not for to hide it in a hedge :"— not to hide it. 

Obs. 14. — Position. — The proper place for a Preposition is (as 
its name implies) before the Phrase it introduces. 

Examples.— " In dread, in danger, and alone, 

Famished and chilled through ways unknown. 1 ' 

Obs. 15. — But, by the poets, it is often placed after its Object. 

Example.— t4 From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, 
Leaps the live thunder." 

Obs. 16. — And sometimes in colloquial style. 

Example.— " You will have no mother or sister to go toy 

Rem. — This idiom is inelegant, and not to be recommended. 

Obs. 17. — A Preposition commonly indicates the office of the 
Phrase which it introduces. 
Example.— See page 167. 

Obs. 18. — Many words commonly used as Prepositions are some- 
times employed, not as Elements of Phrases, but as Word-Elements 
in Sentences. These are commonly Adverbs. 

Examples.— 1. " Come on, my brave associates." 

2. " Lift up thy voice like a trumpet." 

3. " Down, down, the tempest plunges on the sea." 

4. " And the mad waves rise up to buffet it." 



SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 307 

Kote 1. — Care should be exercised in the choice of 
Prepositions. 

Obs. 1. — The particular Preposition proper to introduce a given 
Phrase depends — 

1. Usually on the word which the Phrase is to qualify. 

2. Sometimes on the Object of the Phrase. 

Examples. 

Accommodate to. Die by violence. Compliance with. 

Accord with. " of a disease. Conformable fo. 

Accuse of. Diminish from. Difficulty i?i, with. 

Acquainted with. Dissent from. Eager in, for. 

Ask of a person. Insist upon. Need of. 

" for a thing. Made of a thing. True to. 

Bestow upon. " by a person. Value upon, of. 

Boast of. " ira a place. Worthy of. 

Concur with, in. Abhorrence of. 

Differ from. Agreeable to. 

Obs. 2. — When the second term of a comparison is expressed by 
a Phrase — 

After a Superlative, the Preposition of is commonly used. 
After a Comparative, the Preposition than is commonly used. 
Examples.— Grammar is the most interesting of all my studies. 

Grammar is more interesting than all my other studies. 

Obs. 3. — When the second term of a Comparison of Equality is a 
Noun or a Pronoun, the Preposition as is commonly used — some- 
times like is used. 

Examples.— 1. " He hath died to redeem such a rebel as me"— Wesley. 

2. "An hour like this may well display the emptiness of hu- 
man grandeur." 

Obs. 4. — Some writers improperly substitute the words for and 
with for as. 

Example.— "It implies government of the very same kind with that which 
a master exercises over his servants." — Bishop Butler. 
Better.— Of the very same kind as that. 

Obs. 5. — A Preposition and its Subsequent constitute a Phrase, 
generally constituting an Adjective or an Adverbial Adjunct* 

* In the analysis of a Sentence, a Phrase contained in it is to be parsed, first, 
as one distinct Element in the structure of its Sentence ; then the Phrase is to 
be analyzed, and each of its distinct Elements pointed out. (See pp. 184-5.) 

Scholars often find it difficult to determine the Antecedent term of a relation 



308 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART III 

Examples. 
Adjective Element. — 1. " The King of Shadows loves a shining mark." 
Adverbial Element. — 2. " Time SLErT on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope." 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Eule 13. — Conjunctions connect Words, Phrases, and 

Sentences, or introduce Sentences. 

Examples. 

Words 1. "In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth." 

Phrases... .2. " To give good gifts and to be benevolent, are often differ- 
ent things." 
Sentences . .3. " Thou art perched aloft on the beetling crag, 
And the waves are white below." 

Obs. 1. — Words connected by Conjunctions have a similar con- 
struction. 

Examples.— 1. " God created the heaven and the earth." 

2. " Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope.'' 

3. " A great and good man has fallen." 

Rem. — " Heaven" and " earth" are alike Objects of " created." 
" Slept" and " lent" are Predicates of " Time." " Great" and 
" good" describe " man." 

Obs. 2. — But they have not necessarily similar modifications. 

Example.— " Every teacher has and must have his own particular way of im- 
parting knowledge."— McElligott. 

Rem. — " Has" and " must have" are Predicates of " teacher" — 
but they are not of the same Mode. 

Obs. 3. — Phrases and Sentences used as Elements in the struc- 
ture of a Principal Sentence, have a similar construction when con- 
nected by Conjunctions. 

expressed by a Preposition— examples sometimes occur in which the relation 
of the Object of a Preposition seems to exist, not to any word, but to the 
whole Sentence. Generally, however, this question can be settled by ascer- 
taining which word is qualified by the Phrase introduced by a Preposition— that 
word is the Antecedent term of relation. 

Example.— " A flood of glory bursts from all the skies." 

Rem.— Here the Phrase " of glory" specifies " flood ;" hence, " flood" is the 
Antecedent term of the relative expressed by " of;' 1 and the Phrase is Adjective. 

* 4 From all the skies" modifies " bursts ;" hence, " bursts" is the Antecedent 
term ; and the Phrase is Adverbial. 



SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 309 

Examples.— 1. " He served his country in the cabinet and in the field" 

2. " To eat and to sleep constitute the sum of his employments." 

3. " While lam his and he is mine, 

I'm ever safe from ill." 

Obs. 4. — But Conjunctions may introduce Principal Sentences, 
without connecting them to any Word or Sentence in construction. 

Examples.— 1. " And who says this ?" 

2. " That I have taken this old man's daughter is most true." 

3. " And I am glad that he has lived thus long." 

Obs. 5. — Conjunctions introducing Adjunct Sentences connect 
their Sentences to the Word modified by such Auxiliaries. 

Examples.— 1. " And, if I sought, 

Think'st thou no other could be brought f" 

2. "As ye journey, sweetly sing." 

3. " How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, 

When fond recollection presents them to view." 
(See Diagram, p. 293.) 

Obs. 6. — But Auxiliary Substantive Sentences are simply intro- 
duced by Conjunctions. 

Examples. — 1. " That all men are created equal, is a self-evident truth." 
2. "He knew not that the chieftain lay 
Unconscious of his son." 
(See Diagram, p. 243.) 

Obs. 7. — The Position of Sentences often determines their con- 
nection, without the use of Conjunctions. 

Examples.— 1. " The time may come you need not run."— Thomson. 

2. " Milton ! thou shouldst be living at this hour— 

[For] England hath need of thee." 

3. " But Brutus says, he was ambitious" 

Obs. 8. — Auxiliary Adjective Sentences are commonly introduced 
by Relative Pronouns and by Possessive Adjectives derived from 
them. 

Examples.— 1. " He who filches from me my good name, 

Robs me of that which not enriches him." 

2. " Lo the poor Indian, whose untutored mind 

Sees God in clouds or hears him in the wind." 

3. " Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea." 

Obs. 9. — Conjunctions that introduce Auxiliary Adverbial Sen- 
tences, and some others, indicate the offices of the Sentences which 
they introduce. 



310 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

. If, Unless, etc., indicate condition As, When, Before, etc., indi- 
cate time. For, Hence, Therefore, etc., indicate an inference or cause. 
But, Yet, Nevertheless, etc., indicate restriction or apposition. Nor, 
Neither, etc, indicate a negation. 

Examples.— 1. " If sinners entice thee, consent thou not.'" 

2. " Speak of me as lam— nothing extenuate, 

Nor set down aught in malice." 

3. " Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains." 

4. " I go, but I return." 

Exception. — The Conjunction when may introduce an Adjective 
Sentence that limits a Noun indicating time. 

Example.— Do you remember the time when Lee surrendered to Grant ? 

Exception.— The Conjunction where may introduce an Adjec- 
tive Sentence that limits a Noun indicating place. 

Example. — Is there some favored spot where mortals weep no more? 

Caution. — The words where and when are often improperly used 
for the Phrase in which. 

Incorrect.—" A limited monarchy is a government where the powers and 
duties of the monarch are limited by a constitution." 

Corrected.— A limited monarchy is one in which the powers and duties of 
the monarch are limited by a constitution. 

Obs. 10. — Conjunctions may be omitted only when the connec- 
tion is sufficiently clear without them. 

Examples.— 1. " Unnumbered systems, [ ] suns, and worlds, 

Unite to worship thee ; 

2. While thy majestic greatness fills 

Space, [ ] Time, [ ] Eternity." 

Obs. 11. — The Adverb " how" is sometimes improperly used 
instead of the Conjunction " that." 

Example. — " She tells me how, with eager speed, 

He flew to hear my vocal reed."— Shenstone. 

Obs. 12. — Conjunctions sometimes introduce the remnant of a 
Sentence. 

Example. —Though [ ] afflicted, he is happy. 

Obs. 13. — Position. — The proper place for a Conjunction is be- 
fore the Sentence which it introduces, and between the Words or 
Phrases which it connects. 

Example.— " And there lay the rider, distorted Avtvpale, 

With the dew on his brow and the rust on his mail." 



SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 311 

Obs. 14. — But in Complex Sentences, the Conjunction intro- 
ducing the Principal Sentence is commonly placed first, and that 
introducing the Auxiliary Sentence immediately following. 
Example.—" And when its yellow lustre smiled 
O'er mountains yet untrod, 
Each mother held aloft her child 
To bless the bow of God." 

But to this rule there are exceptions. 

Corresponding Conjunctions. 

Obs. 15. — Many Conjunctions correspond to Adverbs, to Prepo- 
sitions, and to other Conjunctions. 

As so " As is the mother, so is the daughter. 11 

So as " Mary is not so cheerful as usual. 11 

Both and " Both good and bad were gathered in one group. 1 ' 

Either or "Either you mistake, or I was misinformed. 11 

Not nor "Prepositions should not be inserted nor omitted con- 
trary to general usage. 11 

Neither nor " Neither Alice nor Caroline has been here to-day." 

Whether., .or "I care not whether you go or stay. 11 

So that "He called so loud that all the hollow deep. 11 

Such that. "My engagements are such that I can not go. 11 

If then " If you will take the right, then I will go to the left." 

Not only . . .but also lt Sne was not only vain, but also extremely ignorant. 11 

Though yet " Though man live a hundred years, yet is his life as 

vanity. 11 
Because . . .therefore ..." Therefore doth my Father love me, because I lay down 
my life.'" 

Rem. — The Antecedent corresponding word is sometimes exple- 
tive. 

Obs. 16. — Double Conjunctions are sometimes used. 
Examples.— 1. " As though he had not been anointed with oil." 
2. " And yet, fair bow, no fabling dreams, 
But words' of the Most High 
Have told why first thy robe of beams 
Was woven in the sky. 11 

Obs. 17. — But they may not be used, when one of them would 
fully express the connection. 

Example.— " There would be no doubt but that they would remain." 
The word " but" is unnecessary and improper. 
$W* Let the Pupils correct the following 

Errors. 
1 : William is not as cheerful as usual. 
2. Either you mistake, else I was misinformed. 



312 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART III. 

3. Neither wealth or fame render a man happy. 

4. Prepositions should not he inserted or omitted contrary to general usage. 
—Kent, p. 435. 

5. I can not doubt hut that Robert will return. 

EXCLAMATIONS. 

Eule 14. — Exclamations have no dependent construc- 
tion. 

Obs. — Exclamations may be followed by Words, Phrases, or 
Sentences. 

Examples.— 1. " O Scotia ! my dear, my native soil." 

2. " Woe ! woe I to the riders that trample thee down." 

3. " O that I could again recall 

My early joys, companions all 1" 

WORDS OF EUPHONY. 

Note. — Words of Euphony are, in their offices, chiefly 
rhetorical. 

Rem. — The Principles of Euphony are much required in the 
structure of all languages ; for Euphony, words are altered in 
form, position, and office — and they are, for Euphony, created or 
omitted. 

Obs. — Euphon}^ allows — 

1. The Transposition of Words in a Sentence* 
Example.—" From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, 

Leaps the live thunder." 

2. The omission of a letter or syllable. 
Example. — " Hark ! 'tis the breeze of twilight calling." 

3. The substitution of one letter for another. 
Examples.— 1. Collect, for Corded. 

2. Syllogism, " Sunloglsm. 

3. Immigrant, " /emigrant. 

4. The addition of a letter, syllable, or word. 
Example. — " It was his boxm&en duty thus to act." 

5. A word to be separated into parts, and another word inserted 
between them. 

Example.—" How much soever we may feel their force." 



GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 313 

6. A word to be used not in its ordinary office. 
Examples.— 1. " And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide." 
2. " The more I see of this method, the better I like it," 

Position. 
Note. — Words of Euphony should be placed in their 
appropriate connection. 

Obs. 1. — In the following Examples this principle is violated : 

1. " To think of others, and not only of himself. 11 

Here " only" is used to render " himself" emphatic. A better 
position would be — " and not of himself onlyP 

2. " Joyous Youth and manly Strength and stooping Age are even here. 11 
Better. — Joyous Youth and manly Strength and even stooping Age are here. 

3. " When our hatred is violent, it sinks us even beneath those we hate. 11 
Better — -It sinks us beneath even those we hate. 

Obs. 2. — A Word repeated in the same connection is to be re- 
garded as a word of Euphony. 

Examples. — " Down ! down ! the tempest plunges on the sea. 11 
" For life ! for life, their flight they ply. 11 

GENERAL RULES. 

1. In constructing a Sentence, such Words should be 
chosen as will most clearly convey the sense intended — 
regard being had also to variety and other principles of 
taste. 

2. In expressing Complex ideas, judgment and taste 
are to be exercised in the use of Phrases and Sentences, 
when they may equally convey the sense. 

3. That Modification of Words should be adopted 
which is in accordance with the most reputable usage. 

4. The relative Position of Words, Phrases, and Sen- 
tences should be such as to leave no obscurity in the sense. 

5. Involved Complex Sentences should not be used 
when Simple or Independent Sentences w r ould better 
convey the sense, 

14 



314 ENGLISH GMAMMAR—PART IV. 



PART IV. 

PROSODY. 



Bef. 1, — That part of the Science of Language which 
treats of utterance, is called Prosody. 

Obs. — Utterance is modified by Pauses r by Accent, and by the 
laws of Versification. 

Pauses. 

Def. 2.— Pauses are cessations of the voice in reading 

or speaking. 

~ . tj f Rhetorical and 

Obs. 1. — Pauses are ■{ _. M . _ 

( Grammatical, 

Obs. 2- -Rhetorical Pauses are useful chiefly in arresting attention. 
They are generally made after or immediately before emphatic 
words. 

They are not indicated by marks. 

Example's. — There is a calm for those who weep y 
A rest for weary pilgrims found. 

Obs. 3. — Grammatical Pauses are- useful — in addition to their 
Ehetorical effect—in determining the sense. 
They are indicated by 

Marks of Pubctuatton. 
They are — 

The Period 



The Comma. .. , 

The Semicolon . . . . ; 



The Colon , 



The Interrogation.. . ? 
The Exclamation . . . E 



The Dash — 

Obs. 4. — In its Rhetorical office, 

The Comma requires a short pause in reading. 
The Semicolon, a pause longer than the Comma. 



PROSODY. 315 

The Colon, a pause longer than the Semicolon. 
The Period requires a full pause. 

The Dash, the Marks of Exclamation and Interrogation, re- 
quire pauses corresponding with either of the other marks. 

Rem:. — In the use of Marks of Punctuation, good writers differ; 
and it is exceedingly difficult for the Teacher to give Rules for 
their use that can be of general application. 

The following Rules are the most important : 

Comma. 

Eule 1. — When more than two words of the same 
construction occur consecutively, the Comma should be 
repeated after each. 

Examples. 
Correct. — 1. " Veracity, justice, and charity are essential virtues." 

2. "There is such an exactness in definition, such a pertinence in 
proof, such a perspicuity in his detection of sophisms, as 
have been rarely employed in the Christian cause."— B. B. 
Edwards. 
Incorrect. — 3. " The dripping rock the mountain's misty top 

Swell on the sight and brighten with the dawn." 
4. Fame wisdom love and power were mine. 

Obs. — Exception. — The Comma is not placed between an Adjec- 
tive and its Noun, although preceded by other Adjectives of the 
same construction. 

Examples. 
Correct. — 1. "David was a brave, martial, enterprising prince." 
2. "With that dull-rooted, callous impudence." 
Incorrect.— 3. " The tall, dark, mountains and the deep-toned sea." 
Ah ! how unjust to Nature and himself 
Is thoughtless thankless inconsistent, man ! 

Eule 2. — The parts of a Complex Sentence should be 
separated by a Comma, when the Auxiliary precedes the 
Principal Sentence. 

Examples. 
Correct.— -1. "Wliere wealth and freedom reign, contentment fails." 

2. "If thine enemy hunger, feed him ; if he thirst, give him drink." 
Incorrect. — 3. " When the cock crew he wept." 
4. " As ye journey sweetly sing." 

Eule. 3. —An Adjunct Phrase or Sentence, used to 



316 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART IV. 

express an incidental fact, and placed between the parts 
of the Principal Sentence, is separated by Commas. 

Examples. 

Correct. — 1. "The grave, that never spoke before, 

Hath found, at length, a tongue to chide." 
Incorrect. — 2. " Truth, crushed to earth will rise again. " 
3. " Kise sons of harmony and hail the morn." 

Exception. — But when an Adjunct Phrase or Sentence which 
is indispensable in perfecting the sense, immediately follows the 
word which it qualifies, the Comma should not intervene. 

Examples. 
Correct. — 1. " Every one that findeth me, shall slay me." 

2. " Let school-taught pride dissemble all it can. 1 ' 
Incorrect.— 3. " The fur, that warms a monarch, warmed a bear." 

Kttle 4. — Words, Phrases, and Sentences thrown in 
between the parts of a Principal Sentence are separated 
by Commas. 

Examples. 

Correct. — 1. " Go, then, where, wrapt in fear and gloom, 
Fond hearts and true are sighing." 
2. " Now, therefore, I pray thee, let thy servant abide." 
Incorrect.— 3. " It is a clear lake the very picture ordinarily of repose." 

Kule 5. — A Phrase or a Sentence used as the Subject 
of a Verb, requires a Comma between it and the Verb. 

Examples. 
Correct.— 1. To do good to others, constitutes an important, object of ex- 
istence. 
2. That we are rivals, does not necessarily make us enemies. 
Incorrect. — 3. " That all men are created equal is a self-evident truth." 

" His being a minister prevented his rising to civil power." 

Kule 6. — Words used in direct address should be 
separated by a Comma. 

Examples. 
Correct.— -1. " Thou, whose spell can raise the dead, 
Bid the prophet's form appear." 
Incorrect.— -2. " Samuel raise thy buried head 

King behold the phantom seer !" 

Kule 7. — Adjunct Sentences, Phrases, and sometimes 



PUNCTUATION. 317 

Words, not in their natural position, should be separated 
by a Comma. 

Examples. 
Correct. — 1. " Into this illustrious society, he whose character I have endeav- 
ored feebly to portray, has, without doubt, entered." 

2. " He, like the world, his ready visits pays, 

Where Fortune smiles.'" 
Incorrect.— 3. " To him who in the love of Nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms 
She speaks a various language." 

Obs. — An Independent Phrase should be separated from its Sen- 
tence by a Comma. 

Correct.—" Thus talking, hand in hand, alone they passed." 
Incorrect.—"' Captain Smith, having gone to see his wife, desires the prayers 
of the congregation for his safe return." 

Semicolon. 

Eule 8. — The Semicolon is used at the close of a Sen- 
tence which, by its terms, promises an additional Sen- 
tence. 

Examples. 
Correct. — 1. "The Essayists occupy a conspicuous place in the last century; 
but, somehow, I do not feel disposed to set much store by 
them." 
Incorrect.— 2. "It thunders but I tremble not 
My trust is firm in God." 

3. " Wisdom is better than rubies, 

It can not be gotten for gold." 

Obs. — By many writers, the Semicolon is used to separate short 
Sentences which have not a close relation to each other. 

Examples. 
Correct.— 1. "He was a plain man, without any pretension to pulpit elo- 
quence, or any other accomplishment ; he had no gift of 
imagination ; his language was hard and dry ; and his illus- 
trations, homely." 
Incorrect.— 2. " I had a seeming friend I gave him gifts and he was gone 
I had an open enemy I gave him gifts, and won him— 
The very heart of hate melteth at a good man's love." 

COLOK. 

Eule 9. — The Colon is used at the close of a Sentence, 
when another Sentence is added as a direct illustration 
or inference. 



318 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART IV. 

Examples. 
Correct.— 1. "Let me give you a piece of good counsel, my cousin ; follow 
my laudable example : write when you can : take Time's 
forelock in one hand and a pen in the other, and so make 
sure of your opportunity." 
Incorrect. — 2. " The wicked flee, when no man pursueth but the righteous, are 
bold as a lion." 

Rem. — The Colon is not much used by late writers — its place 
being supplied by the Semicolon, the Dash, or the Period. 

Period. 

Kule 10. — The Period is used at the close of a com- 
plete or independent proposition. 

Obs. — The Period is also used after initial letters and abbrevia- 
tions. 

Examples. 
Correct.— J. Q. Adams, LL.D., M. C. 
Incorrect. — A S Barnes and Co 51 John St N Y. 

Dash. 
Rule 11. — The Dash is used to indicate— 

1. An abrupt transition. 

2. An unfinished sentence. 

3. Succession of particulars. 

Examines. 
Correct. — 1. "They met to expatiate and confer on state affairs— to read the 
newspapers — to talk a little scandal — and so forth— and the 
result was — as we have been told — considerable dissipa- 
tion. 11 — Wilson's Burns. 
Incorrect.— 2. "To me the ' Night Thoughts 1 is a poem on the whole most 
animating and delightful amazingly energetic full of the 
richest instruction improving to the mind much of it worthy 
of being committed to memory some thoughts obscure ex- 
travagant tinged occasionally with flattery." 

Obs. 1. — The Dash is often used instead of the Parenthesis. 

Example. — " As they disperse they look very sad — and, no doubt they are so 
— but had they been, they would not have taken to digging. 1 ' 

Obs. 2. — Many modern writers use the Dash in place of the 
Semicolon and the Colon — and sometimes with them. 

Example. — " Ye have no need of prayer ; — 

Ye have no sins to be forgiven. 11 — Sprague. 



PUNCTUATION. 319 

Exclamation. 

Rule 12. — The mark of Exclamation is used alter a 
Word, Phrase, or Sentence whose prominent office is to 
express sudden or intense emotion. 

Examples. 
Correct.— -1. " Hark ! a strange sound affrights mine ear. 11 

2. " To arms !— they come !— the Greek, the Greek l" 
Incorrect— Z. " O my coevals, remnants of yourselves." 

4. " Poor human ruins tottering o'er the grave. 11 

Interrogation. 

Eule 13. — The mark of Interrogation is used after a 
Word, Phrase, or Sentence by which a question is asked. 

Examples. 
Correct. — 1. " Why is my sleep disquieted ?" 
2. Who is he that calls the dead ? 
Incorrect. — 3. " Is it for thee the lark ascends and sings. 11 

4. " What pleasing study cheats the tedious day. 11 

Rem. — When the Interrogation or Exclamation is used, the 
Comma, Semicolon, Colon, or Period is omitted. 

Grammatical a:n t d Rhetorical Sights. 
Obs. — the signs used in writing are — 

1. The Apostrophe ' 

2. The Quotation " ,v 

3. The Hyphen - 

4. The Bracket [ ] 

5. The Parenthesis ( ) 

6. References * t 

7. The Brace I 



( Rising ' 

8. Inflections -j Falling ... * 

( Circumflex a 

Loner - 



Measures -| Sh 



10. Caret a 

11. Dieresis •• 

12. Index ft^f 

13. Section § 

14. The Paragraph *[ 



Def. 3. — The Apostrophe (') is used to indicate the 
omission of a letter, and to change a Noun into a Pos- 
sessive Specifying Adjective. 

Examples.— 1. 4 * Hearts from which Hwas death to sever ; 

2. Eyes, this world can ne'er restore. 11 

3. "How lightly mounts the Muse's wing." 



320 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART IV. 

Def. 4. — The Quotation (" ") is used to inclose words 
taken from some other author or book. 

Example. — "Southey, among all our living poets," says Professor Wilson, 
" stands aloof and ' alone in his glory.' " 

Rem. — A Quotation quoted is indicated by single marks. 
Example.— (See the latter part of the last Example.) 

Def. 5. — The Hyphen ( - ) is used between two ele- 
ments of a compound word. 

Examples. — Money-market — ink-stand— black-board. 

Rem. — It is also used at the end of a line, when the word is not 
finished. (See this Rem.) 

Def. 6. — The Bracket [ ] is used to inclose a letter 
or mark given as an explanatory example, or a Word, 
Phrase, or Sentence thrown in by a reviewer, and not a 
part of the original sentence. 

Example.—" Mr. Secor found means to have Mr. Butler recommended to hjm 
[Lord Talbot] for his chaplain. 1 '* 

Def. 7. — The Parenthesis ( ) is used to inclose a 
Phrase or Sentence explanatory of, or incidental to, the 
main Sentence. 

Example. — " Come, my Ambition ! let us mount together, 
(To mount Lorenzo never can refuse,) 
And from the clouds where pride delights to dwell, 
Look down on earth." 

Rem. — Modern writers often use the Dash for the same purpose. 

Example.— " The monotony of a calm— for the trade-wind had already failed 
us— was agreeably relieved yesterday by the neighborhood of two ships, etc."— 
Malcolm. 

Def. 8. — References (* f J §) direct attention to 
notes at the margin or the bottom of the page. 

Rem. — The letters of the Latin or Greek alphabets, and some- 
times figures, are used for the same purpose. 

Def. 9. — The Brace ( } ) is used to include many 
species in one class. 



Example.— Adjectives are distinguished as-< Specifying, 

( Verbal. 



( Qualifying, 
s|Sy 



Def. 11. — Measures ^ 



PROSODY. 321 

Rem. — By the old poets, the Brace was also used to join the lines 
of a triplet. 

Def. 10. — Inflections (' N A ) indicate elevations or de- 
pressions of the key-note in reading. 

Examples.— " Do you go to Albany' ?" "I go to UticaY' 

' (-) indicates the long sound of 
a Syllable, as hate, mete, note. 

( w ) indicates the short sound of 
a Syllable, as hat, met, not. 

Def. 12. — The Caret ( A ) is used between two Words, 
to indicate the place of words omitted and placed above 
the line. 

of mankind 
Examples. — '* The proper study is man.' 1 

Def. 13. — Dieresis (••) is placed over the second of 
two vowels, to show that they belong to different syllables. 

Examples. — Preemption. — Coeval. — Reeducate. 

Obs. — The Hyphen is sometimes placed between the vowels for 
a similar purpose. 

Examples. — Co-operate. — Re-educate. 

Def. 14. — The Index (flgf ) is used to point out a 
word or sentence considered worthy of special notice. 

Def. 15. — The Section ( § ) marks the divisions of a 
chapter or book. 

Def. 16. — The Paragraph (^[) is used when a new 
subject of remark is introduced. 

Re:m. — The sign of the Paragraph is retained in the Holy Scrip- 
tures ; but in other compositions the Paragraph is sufficiently indi- 
cated by its commencing a new line on the page. 

Def. 17— Accent is a stress of voice placed on a par- 
ticular syllable in pronouncing a word. 

Def. 18. — Emphasis is a stress of voice placed on a 
particular word in a sentence. 

14* 



322 ENGLISH GBAMMAB—PABT IV. 

Obs. — This mark is indicated — 

1. In manuscript, by a line drawn under the emphatic word. 

2. On a printed page, by the use of Italic letters — CAPITAL 

letters are used to indicate words still more emphatic. 

COMPOSITION. 

Def. 19. — Composition — as the word implies — is the 
art of placing together words so as to communicate ideas. 

Pkose and Verse. 

In Prose Composition, Words and Phrases are ar- 
ranged with a primary reference to the sense. 

In Verse, the Sound and Measure of Words and Syl- 
lables determine their position. 

Obs. — Among the various kinds of Prose Compositions may be 
mentioned the following : 

Narrative, Descriptive, Didactic, Historical, Biographical. 

Verse. 
Def. 20. — Verse consists of words arranged in meas- 
ured lines, constituting a regular succession of accented 
and unaccented Syllables. 

Obs. — Verse is used in Poetry. The different kinds of Poetry 
are— 

Lyric, Charade, Sonnet, 

Dramatic, Ballad, Pastoral, 

Epic, Epigram, Elegiac, 

Didactic, Epitaph, Madrigal. 

Def. 21. — Lyric Poetry is — as its name imports — 
such as may be set to music. It includes the " Ode" and 
the " Song." 

Obs. 1. — Lyric Poetry is of three kinds, the Ode, the Hymn, and 
the Song. 

Obs. 2. — The Ode is generally longer than the other kinds of 
Lyric Poetry, and is often irregular in its structure. 

Familiar Examples.— 4 ' Alexander's Feast," by Drijden. 
" Ode on the Passions, 1 ' " Collins. 
"Immortality," " Wordstvorth. 



PROSODY- 323 

IW Let the Pupil give other Examples. 

Obs. 3.— The Hymn is shorter, and is arranged in regular stanzas 
adapted to sacred worship. 

Familiae Examples.— " The Psalms and Hymns" hi general use in Christian 
congregations. 

Obs. 4. — The Song is also short, but is more varied in its stanzas, 

and is adapted to secular uses. 

Familiar Examples. — " Irish Melodies,' 1 by Moore. 

" Songs," " Barry Cornwall. 

JSIP Let the Pupil give other Examples. 

Rem. — English Lyric Poetry makes use of Ehyme exclusively. 

Def. 22. — Epic Poetry is a historical representation 
— real or fictitious — of great events. 

Rem. — Epic Poetry may employ either rhyme or blank verse. 

Examples.— Rhyme.—" Lady of the Lake," by Scott. 

"Curse of Kehama," " Southey. 
Blank Terse. — " Paradise Lost," " Milton. 
" Course of Time, 1 ' " Pollok. 



Let the Pupil give other Examples. 

Def. 23. — Dramatic Poetry is a poem descriptive 
of scenes, events, or character, and is adapted to the stage. 

OBS.-It includes 5 ™ e ^gic and 

( The Comic. 
Examples. — Tragic.—" Othello, 1 ' by Shakspeare. 

Comic.—" All's Well that Ends Well," by Shakspeare, 



' Let the Pupil give other Examples. 

Def. 24. — Didactic Poetry is tliat style adapted to 
the inculcation of science or duty. 

Examples.— " Pleasures of the Imagination," by Akenside. 
" Art of Preserving Health," " Armstrong. 



' Let the Pupil give other Examples. 

Def. 25. — The Charade is a short poem, usually in a 
Lyrical form, containing a Riddle. 

Def. 26. — An Epigram is a witty poem, short, and 
generally abounding in ludicrous expressions. 



324 ENGLISH QBAMMAB—PABT IV. 

Example.— 1 ' Swans sing before they die ; 'twere no bad thing 
Should certain persons die before they sing." 

Def. 27. — An Epitaph is a poetic inscription to the 
memory of some departed person. 

Example. — u Underneath this stone doth lie 
As much beauty as could die, 
Which in life did harbor give 
To more virtue than doth live."— Jonson. 

Def. 28. — Elegiac Poetry is that species used to 
commemorate the death of some person. 

Examples.—" Lysidas," by Milton. 
"Elegy," " Gray. 

Def. 29. — The Sonnet is a poem devoted to the de- 
velopment of a single thought, in rhyming verse of a 
peculiar structure, and generally of fourteen lines. 

Def. 30. — The Madrigal is a Lyric poem of an ama- 
tory nature, and of a lively species of verse. 

Def. 31. — Pastoral Poetry relates to rural life, and 
is generally a song. 

Examples. — "Rural Sports," by Gay. 

" The Falls of the Passaic," by Irving. 

Def. 32. — The Ballad is a Lyric poem, of a Narrative 
cast, in a simple or rude style of composition. 

Example.—" Battle of Brunnenberg," by Ferris. 

Versification. 

Def. 1. — Versification is the art of making verse — 
i. e., the proper arrangement of a certain number of Syl- 
lables in a line. 

Note.^ — There are two prominent distinctions in Verse, 

1. Blank Verse. 

2. Rhyme. 

Def. 3.— Blank Verse consists in measured lines 



PROSODY. 325 

usually of ten Syllables each, and which may or may not 
end with the same sound. 

Example.—" 'Tis midnight's holy hoar ; and silence now 
Is brooding, like a gentle spirit, o'er 
The still and pulseless world. Hark ! on the winds 
The bell's deep tones are swelling ; 'tis the knell 
Of the departed year. 1 ' 

Def. 3. — Rhyming Verse consists of measured lines, 
of which two or more end with the same sound. 

Examples. 
Rhymes successive.—" Thou bright glittering star of even ! 
Thou gem upon the brow of heaven ! 
Oh ! were this fluttering spirit free, 
How quick 'twould spread its wings to thee!" 
"Rhymes alternating. — " Oh ! sacred star of evening, tell 
In what unseen celestial sphere 
Those spirits of the perfect dwell — 
Too pure to rest in sadness here." 

Def. 4. — A line in Poetry is technically called a Verse. 

Example.— " And I am glad that he has lived thus long." 

Rem. — Yerses are of different lengths. 

Def. 5. — A half verse is called a Hemistich. 

Example. — "I, too, will hasten back with lightning speed, 
To seek the hero.' 1 '' 

Def. 6. — Two rhyming yerses which complete the 
sense are called a Couplet. 

Examples.— 1. " Look round our world ; behold the chain of love, 
Combining all below and all above." 
2. " And more true joy Marcellus exiled feels, 
Than Csesar with a senate at his heels." 

Def. 7. — Three yerses which rhyme together are a 
Triplet. 

Example.—" So fair, so sweet, withal so sensitive, 

Would that the little flowers were born to live, 
Conscious of half the pleasure which they give." 

Def. 8. — Four lines or more are called a Stanza. 

Example.—" Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 

The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear; 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 



326 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART IV. 

* r ir -. .., ( Rhyming Syllables* or 

JNOTE. — Verses may end With \ _., J . 6 . ;; 7 
J ( Ehyming II oras* 

Example.— •' We come, we come, a little band, 

As Children Of the nation ; 
We are joined in heart, we arc joined in hand, 
To keep the Declaration. 11 

Rem. — Tn the above stanza, the first and third lines end with 
Rhyming Words — the second and fourth, with Rhyming Syllables. 

\)kv. l X — A collection of Syllables is called a Foot. 

at.,, \ -m l • i r ( two Syllables, or 

Note. — A Foot may consist oi \ . -V .. . ' 

( three Syllables. 

\)va\ 10. — Feet of two Syllables are the 

Trochee . . . .first long, second short — ^ 

Iambus first short, second long w — 

Pyrrhic both short w w 

Spondee both long 

Feet of three Syllables are the 

Dactyl one long and two short — w»^ 

Anapest two short and one long ^^ — . 

Amphibrach . first short, second long, third shorts — w 
Tribrach three short w^w 

Rem. — Most English Poetry is written in Iambic, Trochaic, or 
Anapaestic Verse. 

Trochaic Verse. 

1. Hexameter, or six feet, 

" On a | mountain | stretched be | neath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow." 

2. Pentameter, or five feet 

" Rouse him | like a | rattling | peal of | thunder." 

3. Tetrameter, or four feet. 

On the | mountain's | top ap | pealing, 
Lo, the sacred herald stands ! 

4. Trimeter, or three feet. 
" How I | love to | see thee, 
Golden evening sun." 



PJR080L >'. 327 

5. Dimeter, or two feet 
Rich the | treasure, 
Sweet the pleasure. 

6. Monometer, or one foot. 
Hinging 
Singing. 

Iambic Verse. 

1 . Six fiet— Hexameter. 
The praise | of Bac | chus then | the sweet musi | cian sung, 

2. Five feet — Pen tameter. 

Oh, I | have loved | in youth's | fair ver | nal morn, 
To spread | ima | gina | don's wild | est wing. 

3. Four feet — Tetrameter. 
There is | a calm | for those | who weep, 
A rest | for wea | ry pil | grims found. 

4. Three feet — Trimeter. 
What sought | they thus | afar? 
Bright jew | els of | the mine? 

5. Two feet — Dimeter. 
" I am | the grave." 

6. One foot — Mono meter. 
" My home." 

Anapaestic Verse. 

1. Four feet. 

But we stead | fastly gazed | on the face | of the dead. 

2. Three feet. 

" And I loved | her the more | when I heard 
Such tenderness fall from her tongue." 

3. Two feet. 

" FOr the - night only draws 
A thin veil o'er the day." 



328 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-PART IV. 

Dactylic Verse. 

1. Four feet 

Come, ye clis | consolate, | where'er ye | languish, 

2. Three feet 

Earth has no | sorrows that | Heaven can not | heaL 

3. Two feet 
Free from anx | iety, 
Care, and satiety. 

4. One foot. 
Cheerfully 

Fearfully. 

The Amphibrach. 

" There is a | bleak desert | where daylight | grows weary 

Of wasting its smiles on a region so dreary." 
" With storm-dar | ing pinion | and suri-ga | zing eye, 

The gray forest eagle is king of the sky." 
" There's pleasure | in freedom, | whatever | the season, 

That makes every object look lovely and fair." 

Obs. 1. — The first Syllable of a verse is sometimes omitted. 

Examples. 

[ ] " And there | lay the ri | der, distort | ed and pale, 

With the dew | on his brow | and the rust | on his mail.*' 

Obs. 2. — A syllable is sometimes added to a line. 
Examples. 

"Earth has no | sorrows that | Heaven can not | heal" 
" A guar | dian an | gel o'er | my life | presid | ing, 
Doubling my pleasures, and my cares dividing." 

Obs. 3. — The different measures are sometimes combined in the 

same line. 

Examples. 

" May comes, | May comes, ] we have called | her long, 
May comes | o'er the moun | tains with light | and song ; 
We may trace | her steps | o'er the wak | ening earth, 
By the winds | which tell | of the vio | let's birth." 

Obs. 4. — Sometimes the last syllable of a line becomes the first 
syllable in the first foot of the next. 



PROSODY. 329 

Example. 

44 On the cold | cheek of death | smiles and ro | ses are blend | ing, 
And beau | ty immor | tal awakes | from the tomb. 1 ' 

FIGURES. 

Note. — Language is modified in its structure, style, 
and utterance by the use of Figures. 

Def. 1. — A Figure of speech is a licensed departure 
from the ordinary structure or use of a word in a Sentence. 

Ojjs. — Figures are employed to give strength, beauty, or melody to 
Language. 

A ^ „ -rr. I Grammatical or 

Note. — Figures are \ ^. . . . 
J \ Ehetorical. 

Def. 2. — A Grammatical Figure is a deviation from 
the ordinary form or office of a word in a Sentence. 

Def. 3. — A Rhetorical Figure is a deviation from the 
ordinary application of words in the expression of thought. 

I. Figures Modifying the Forms of Words. 

These are called — 

Apluereds, Apocope, Syncerem, Syncope, 

Prosthesis, Paragoge, Dkeresis, Tmesis. 

Def. 4. — Aphaeresis allows the elision of one or more 
of the first letters of a word. 

Examples. — 1. " 'Mid scenes of confusion." 

2. " And therefore thou may'st think my 'havior light." — Juliet. 

3. '* What ! have you let the false enchanter 'scape V— Milton, 

Def. 5. — Prosthesis allows a syllable to be prefixed 
to a word. 

Examples.— 1. " Else would a maiden blush Repaint my cheek."— Juliet. 

2. " Let fall adown his silver beard some tears." — Thomson. 

3. " The great archangel from his warlike toil 

/Swrceased." — Milton. 

Def. 6. — Apocope allows the elision of one or more 
of the final letters of a word. 



330 ENGLISH GBAMMAR—PART IV. 

Examples.— 1. " And that is spoke.. with such a dying fall." 

2. " Tho 1 the whole loosened Spring around her blows." 

3. " T' whom th' archangel."— Milton. 

Def. 7. — Paragoge allows a syllable to be annexed to 
a word. 

Examples. — 1. " Without<m trump was proclamation made." — Thomson. 
2. " Nor deem that kindly nature did him wrong." — Bryant. 

Def. 8. — Syneeresis allows two syllables to become 
one. 

Examples. — Extra session — ordinary session — extraordinary session. 

Def. 9. — Diaeresis separates two yowels into different 
syllables. 

Examples. — Cooperate— reiterate. 

Def. 10. — Syncope allows one or more letters to be 
taken from the middle of a word. 

Examples.— 1. " Or serve they as njlow'ry verge to bind 

2. The fluid skirts of that same waVry cloud, 

3. Lest it again dissolve and shower the earth."— Milton. 

Def. 11. — Tmesis allows a word to be inserted be- 
tween the parts of a compound word. 

Example.—" How much soever we may desire it." 

Obs. — Sometimes two figures are combined in the same word. 
Example.—" Ah ! whence is that sound which now larums his ear ?" 

II. Figures Modifying the Offices of Words. 

These are called 

rhetorico-grammatical figures. 



Hyperbaton. 



Def. 12. — Ellipsis allows the omission of one or more 
w r ords necessary to complete the grammatical construc- 
tion, when custom has rendered them unnecessary to 
complete the sense. 

Examples.— 1. " Thou art perched aloft on the beetling crag, 
And the waves are white below [ ]." 



They are — 




Ellipsis , 
Pleonasm , 


Syllipsis, 
Enallage, 



PROSODY. 331 

2. "Unnumbered systems [ ], suns, and worlds, 

Unite to worship thee, 

3. W hile thy majestic greatness fills 

Space [ ], Time [ ], Eternity." 

Def. 13. — Pleonasm allows the introduction of words 
not necessary to complete the grammatical construction 
of a Sentence. 

Examples.— 1. " The moon herself is lost in heaven." 

2. M 1 eit vie down, a pensive hour to spend." 

Def. 14. — Syllipsis allows a word to be used not in 
its literal sense. 

Example.— " And there lay the steed, with his nostril all wide." 

Def. 15. — Enallage allows the use of one word for 
another of similar origin, or the substitution of one modi- 
fication for another. 

Example.— " A world devote to universal wreck." 

Def. 16. — Hyperbaton allows the transposition of 
words in a Sentence. 

Example. — " His voice sublime, is heard afar." 

III. Figures of Ehetoric. 
They are — 

Simile, Antithesis, Vision, 

Metaplwr, Metonomy, Paralepsis, 

Allegory, Synecdoche, Climax, 

Personification, Apostrophe, Anti-Climax, 

Irony, Interrogation, Alliteration. 

Hyperbole, Exclamation, 

Def. 17. — A Simile is a direct comparison. 

Example.—" The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold." 

Def. 18. — A Metaphor is an indirect comparison. 

Example.—" There is a tide in the affairs of men, 

Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune." 

Def. 19. — An Allegory is an extended metaphor, by 



332 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART IK 

which a narration, real or fictitious, is made to conyey an 
analogous truth or fiction. 

Example. — " Eternity's vast ocean lies before thee ; 

There, there, Lorenzo, thy Clarissa sails ; 
Give thy mind sea-room ; keep it wide of earth — 
That rock of souls immortal ; cut thy cord ; 
Weigh anchor ; spread thy sails; call every wind ; 
Eye thy great Pole-star ; make the land of life. 1 ' 

Def. 20.— Personification represents inanimate 
things as being endowed with life and volition. 

Examples.— 1. " An old Experience learns too late 
That all is vanity below. 1 ' 
2. "Joy has her tears, and Transport has her death." 

Dee. 21. — Irony makes a sentence conyey a meaning 
the opposite of its ordinary sense. 

Example.— " And we, brave men, are satisfied 

If we ourselves escape his sword." 

Def. 22. — Hyperbole exaggerates the truth. 

Example. — " With fury driven, 

The waves mount up, and wash the face of heaven." 

Def. 23. — Antithesis contrasts two or more things 
with each other. 

Examples.— 1. " Zealous though modest, innocent though free." 

2. " By honor and dishonor, by evil report and good report, as 

deceivers, and yet true." 

Def. 24.— Metonomy puts one thing for another — 

The cause for the effect, 
The effect for the cause. 
The container for the thing contained, 
An attribute or quality for the thing or person. 
Examples. — 1. " Shall the sword devour forever ?" 

2. " Thy hand, unseen, sustains the poles." 

3. " His ear is ever open to their cry." 

4. " I am much delighted in reading Homer." 

5. " He has returned to his cups again." 

6. "I'll plunge thee headlong in the whelming tide" 

Def. 25. — Synecdoche puts a part for a whole, and 
a whole for a part. 



PBOSODY. 333 



Examples.— 1. " When the tempest stalks abroad, 
Seek the shelter of my roof." 
2. " Oh ! ever cursed be the hand 

That wrought this ruin in the land." 

Def. 26. — Apostrophe is a sudden transition from 
the subject of a discourse to address a person or tiling, 
present or absent. 

Example. — " This is a tale for fathers and for mothers. Young men and 
young women, you can not understand it.'" — E. Everett. 

Def. 27. — Interrogation expresses an assertion in 
the form of a question. 

Examples. — 1. " Looks it not like the king ?" 

" He that formed the eye, shall he not see V 

Def. 28. — Exclamation expresses a sudden or intense 
emotion. 

Example. — " O liberty ! O sound once delightful to every Roman ear !" 

Def. 29. — Vision represents past or future time as 
present to the view. 

Example.—" I see them on their winding way, 

About their ranks the moonbeams play." 

Def. 30. — Paralepsis is a figure by which the main 
truth is expressed incidentally, or with a professed effort 
of the speaker to conceal it. 

Example. — " Without alluding to your habits of intemperance, I would ask, 
how can you attempt to justify your present inattention to business and the 
neglect of your family ?" 

Def. 31. — Climax is that form of expression by which 
the thoughts are made to rise by successive gradations. 

Example.— 4 ' He aspired to be the highest ; above the people, above the 
authorities, above the laws, above his COUNTRY.'" 

Def. 32.— Anti-Climax is the opposite of the climax. 

ExAMrLE. — " How has expectation darkened into anxiety, anxiety into 
tflread, and dread into despair. ,, — Irving. 

Def. 33. — Alliteration is the repetition of the same 
letter at the beginning of two or more words immediately 
succeeding each other. 



334 ENGLISH GRAMMAR— PART IV. 

Examples.— 1. " Up the high Mil 7ie /leaves a huge, round stone." 

2. " He carves with classic chisel the Corinthian capital that 
crowns the column. '" 

Questions for Review. 

PAGE 

314— What is Prosody? 

Name the different marks of punctuation. 
315. — When is a Comma properly used ? 
317. — When a Semicolon? — a Colon? — & Period? 
318. — When is a Dash properly used ? — an Exclamation t 

When do we use a mark of Interrogation ? 
319. — Name the Grammatical Signs. 

What is an Apostrophe ? — a Quotation ? — a Hyphen ? 

What is a Bracket ? — a Parenthesis ? — Reference marks ? 

What is a Brace ? — Marks of Inflection ? — Measures ? 

What is a Caret? — a Dieresis? — an Index ? — a Section? 

What is a Paragraph? — How are Paragraphs commonly 
indicated ? 

What is Accent ? — What is Emphasis ? 
322. — What is Composition ? — What are the varieties ? 

What is Prose ? — Name the various kinds of Prose. 

What is Verse ? — When properly used ? 

Name and define the various kinds of Poetry. 
324. — What is Versification ? 

What are the distinctions of Verse ? 

What is Blank Verse ? — What is Rhyming Verse? 

What is a Verse ? — a Hemistich ? — a Couplet ? 

What is a Triplet ? — What is a Stanza ? 

What is a Foot ? — A foot may have how many Syllables? 

What are the Feet of two Syllables ?— of three Syllables ? 

What is a Trochee ? — an Iambus ? — a Pyrrhic ? — a Spondee ? 

What is a Dactyl ? — an Anapest ? — an Amphibrach ? — a Tri- 
brach ? 

What measures are commonly used in English Poetry ? 
329. — What is a Figure of Speech ? — Why are they used ? 

What is a Grammatical Figure ? — a Rhetorical Figure ? 

Name the figures which modify the forms of Words. 
331. — Name and define all the Figures of Rhetoric. 

Note. — Let the Pupils be required to point out the various Fig- 
ures of Speech in any poem or other composition at hand. 



* p ^ 



* K ^ ■ <0 



V 






D>* 



W 






; "^ v* x 


^ .%, 






\° °* 












'Y y: 



\>' </> 

























































^ 









- 






















